467
edits
Diagnostic Testing: Difference between revisions
no edit summary
No edit summary |
No edit summary |
||
| Line 1: | Line 1: | ||
==Electrocardiography (ECG)== | ==Electrocardiography (ECG)== | ||
[[Image:Nsr.png|300px|thumb|Figure 1. A short ECG registration of the normal heart rhythm (sinus rhythm). | [[Image:Nsr.png|300px|thumb|Figure 1. A short ECG registration of the normal heart rhythm (sinus rhythm). Source:http://en.ecgpedia.org/wiki/File:Nsr.png]] | ||
Source: http://en.ecgpedia.org/wiki/File:Nsr.png]] | |||
The electrocardiogram asses the electrical activity of the human heart and translates this into a graphic representation. In Figure 1 the body location for the 10 electrodes of a 12-channel ECG are shown. The exact placement of the electrodes is of utmost importance in obtaining an interpretable ECG. The ECG is a graphic representation of the difference in voltage between the patches over time. | The electrocardiogram asses the electrical activity of the human heart and translates this into a graphic representation. In Figure 1 the body location for the 10 electrodes of a 12-channel ECG are shown. The exact placement of the electrodes is of utmost importance in obtaining an interpretable ECG. The ECG is a graphic representation of the difference in voltage between the patches over time. | ||
| Line 31: | Line 29: | ||
[[Image:QRSwaves.jpg|300px|thumb|Figure 2. | [[Image:QRSwaves.jpg|300px|thumb|Figure 2. | ||
A representation of the several intervals of an ECG. | A representation of the several intervals of an ECG. | ||
Source: http://en.ecgpedia.org/wiki/File:QRSwaves.jpg ]] | Source:http://en.ecgpedia.org/wiki/File:QRSwaves.jpg ]] | ||
===Rhythm=== | ===Rhythm=== | ||
| Line 196: | Line 194: | ||
Doppler ultrasound is a technique of combined with the traditional ultrasound technique. The Doppler technique assesses changes in frequency of the reflected ultrasound compared with the transmitted ultrasound. The difference is used to be translated in a picture of the flow velocity. The continuous-wave Doppler mode is used to quantitate the exact velocity of the flow and estimate the pressure gradient when high velocities are suspected. The technique creates a graphic representation of the flow velocity in echotransducers’ beam in a time continuous wave. The technique is hampered by the fact that anatomical structures can make disturb the beam and subsequently the flow velocity measurement. When there is ambiguity about the source of the high velocity, pulsed-wave Doppler could be a more useful tool. This technique is range-gated in order to make it possible to investigate specific areas along the beam (sample volumes). Another technique widely integrated in echocardiography is the colour Doppler. The colour Doppler technique projects in coloured images informative for the direction of flow, the velocity, and the presence or absence of turbulent flow. The flow velocity colour images are in real-time combined with the two-dimensional structural imaging to investigate blood flow in the heart and great vessels. The colour Doppler image technique is in particular of use in detecting regurgitant blood flows across cardiac valves or to visualise any abnormal communications in the heart. [Figure 8] | Doppler ultrasound is a technique of combined with the traditional ultrasound technique. The Doppler technique assesses changes in frequency of the reflected ultrasound compared with the transmitted ultrasound. The difference is used to be translated in a picture of the flow velocity. The continuous-wave Doppler mode is used to quantitate the exact velocity of the flow and estimate the pressure gradient when high velocities are suspected. The technique creates a graphic representation of the flow velocity in echotransducers’ beam in a time continuous wave. The technique is hampered by the fact that anatomical structures can make disturb the beam and subsequently the flow velocity measurement. When there is ambiguity about the source of the high velocity, pulsed-wave Doppler could be a more useful tool. This technique is range-gated in order to make it possible to investigate specific areas along the beam (sample volumes). Another technique widely integrated in echocardiography is the colour Doppler. The colour Doppler technique projects in coloured images informative for the direction of flow, the velocity, and the presence or absence of turbulent flow. The flow velocity colour images are in real-time combined with the two-dimensional structural imaging to investigate blood flow in the heart and great vessels. The colour Doppler image technique is in particular of use in detecting regurgitant blood flows across cardiac valves or to visualise any abnormal communications in the heart. [Figure 8] | ||
[[Image:Ventricular_Septal_Defect.jpg|thumb|300px|Figure 8. Apical view with colour Doppler projection showing a ventricular septal defect. Source:http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ventricular_Septal_Defect.jpg]] | [[Image:Ventricular_Septal_Defect.jpg|thumb|300px|Figure 8. Apical view with colour Doppler projection showing a ventricular septal defect. | ||
Source:http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ventricular_Septal_Defect.jpg]] | |||
The non-invasive echocardiography has now largely replaced cardiac catheterization for calculation of the hemodynamics changes caused by valvular disease. Several examples of methods to examine hemodynamics of the heart and valves by echocardiopgraphy are: | The non-invasive echocardiography has now largely replaced cardiac catheterization for calculation of the hemodynamics changes caused by valvular disease. Several examples of methods to examine hemodynamics of the heart and valves by echocardiopgraphy are: | ||
| Line 205: | Line 205: | ||
Unfortunately, it is impossible to obtain high-quality images or Doppler signals in as many a small percent of patients. Underlying conditions such as obesity, emphysema or chest wall deformities can limit the use of transthoracic echocardiography. A technique to partly cope with these limitations is transoesophageal echocardiography (TEE) [figure 9]. | Unfortunately, it is impossible to obtain high-quality images or Doppler signals in as many a small percent of patients. Underlying conditions such as obesity, emphysema or chest wall deformities can limit the use of transthoracic echocardiography. A technique to partly cope with these limitations is transoesophageal echocardiography (TEE) [figure 9]. | ||
[[Image:Transesophageal echocardiography diagram.svg|thumb|300px|Figure 9. Transoesophageal echocardiography. Source:http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File%3ATransesophageal_echocardiography_diagram.svg]] | [[Image:Transesophageal echocardiography diagram.svg|thumb|300px|Figure 9. Transoesophageal echocardiography. | ||
Source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File%3ATransesophageal_echocardiography_diagram.svg]] | |||
With TEE a smaller ultrasound probe is placed on a gastroscopic device for introduction in the oesophagus behind the heart. Besides overcoming structural problems, in general TEE produces much higher resolution images of posterior cardiac structures. With TEE left atrial thrombi, small mitral valve vegetations, and thoracic aortic dissection can be diagnosed a high degree of accuracy. The downside of the techniques is the invasiveness of the procedure; the introduction of a probe into the oesophagus is very often experienced as rather uncomfortable by patients. | With TEE a smaller ultrasound probe is placed on a gastroscopic device for introduction in the oesophagus behind the heart. Besides overcoming structural problems, in general TEE produces much higher resolution images of posterior cardiac structures. With TEE left atrial thrombi, small mitral valve vegetations, and thoracic aortic dissection can be diagnosed a high degree of accuracy. The downside of the techniques is the invasiveness of the procedure; the introduction of a probe into the oesophagus is very often experienced as rather uncomfortable by patients. | ||
| Line 219: | Line 221: | ||
*Myocardial resonance imaging | *Myocardial resonance imaging | ||
[[Image:Stress_test.jpg|thumb|300px|Figure 10. Cardiac stress test making use of a walking treadmill | [[Image:Stress_test.jpg|thumb|300px|Figure 10. Cardiac stress test making use of a walking treadmill | ||
Source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File%3AStress_test.jpg]] | |||
The induced cardiac stress is most widely used to compare the coronary circulation during exercise with the circulation in rest. An imbalance between myocardial oxygen supply and demand due to coronary disease can be revealed as a result of the increased oxygen demand during stress conditions. By this means stress testing can reveal myocardial ischemia during exercise, while no symptoms are present at rest. Furthermore, stress testing can also be used to determine cardiac reserve in patients with valvular and myocardial disease. Deterioration of left ventricular performance during the test suggests a decline in cardiac reserve that could have therapeutic and prognostic implications. | The induced cardiac stress is most widely used to compare the coronary circulation during exercise with the circulation in rest. An imbalance between myocardial oxygen supply and demand due to coronary disease can be revealed as a result of the increased oxygen demand during stress conditions. By this means stress testing can reveal myocardial ischemia during exercise, while no symptoms are present at rest. Furthermore, stress testing can also be used to determine cardiac reserve in patients with valvular and myocardial disease. Deterioration of left ventricular performance during the test suggests a decline in cardiac reserve that could have therapeutic and prognostic implications. | ||