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{{DevelopmentPhase}}
''Heather Melrose, Jonas de Jong''
 
__TOC__


Cardiovascular disease including heart disease, arrhythmias and hypertension, is the leading cause of morbidity and mortality in the Western world. There are numerous devastating conditions affecting the heart and/or the vasculature, leading to high demand for cardiovascular drugs. This chapter focuses on some key therapeutic targets within the cardiovascular system and the drugs used to combat cardiovascular disease.
Cardiovascular disease including heart disease, arrhythmias and hypertension, is the leading cause of morbidity and mortality in the Western world. There are numerous devastating conditions affecting the heart and/or the vasculature, leading to high demand for cardiovascular drugs. This chapter focuses on some key therapeutic targets within the cardiovascular system and the drugs used to combat cardiovascular disease.


==Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System==
==Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System==
[[Image:Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone_system.png|thumb|right|500px|RAAS schematic]]
The renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) is an important hormone-based pathway within the body that regulates fluid balance and thus systemic blood pressure. The system is activated by decreases in blood volume or pressure detected in two ways: a drop in blood pressure detected by baroreceptors (pressure sensors) located in the carotid sinus or a drop in flow rate through the kidneys, detected by the juxtaglomerular apparatus. The body responds to these stimuli to effect a restoration in blood pressure via the actions of three hormones; renin, angiotensin and aldosterone. Following the detected drop in blood pressure, the enzyme renin is released from specialised cells within the kidney. The substrate of renin is the inactive precursor of angiotensin I, angiotensinogen. Angiotensin I is then enzymatically converted by angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) into angiotensin II, a hormone with various actions throughout the body that ultimately increase blood pressure, restoring fluid balance within the body.  
The renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) is an important hormone-based pathway within the body that regulates fluid balance and thus systemic blood pressure. The system is activated by decreases in blood volume or pressure detected in two ways: a drop in blood pressure detected by baroreceptors (pressure sensors) located in the carotid sinus or a drop in flow rate through the kidneys, detected by the juxtaglomerular apparatus. The body responds to these stimuli to effect a restoration in blood pressure via the actions of three hormones; renin, angiotensin and aldosterone. Following the detected drop in blood pressure, the enzyme renin is released from specialised cells within the kidney. The substrate of renin is the inactive precursor of angiotensin I, angiotensinogen. Angiotensin I is then enzymatically converted by angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) into angiotensin II, a hormone with various actions throughout the body that ultimately increase blood pressure, restoring fluid balance within the body.  


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==Neural Control of the Cardiovascular System==
==Neural Control of the Cardiovascular System==
[[File:Sympathic_parasympathic.svg|thumb|400px|Interaction between the sympathic and parasympathic nervous system and the heart]]
===Sympathetic (Adrenergic) Nervous System===
===Sympathetic (Adrenergic) Nervous System===
The adrenergic nervous system is a vital component of many processes throughout the body, including the cardiovascular system. Circulating catecholamines (e.g. adrenaline and noradrenaline) bind to and activate adrenergic receptors on cell membranes. Adrenergic receptors are a class of G-protein coupled receptors that elicit a variety of tissue-specific effects and exist in several subtypes.  
The adrenergic nervous system is a vital component of many processes throughout the body, including the cardiovascular system. Circulating catecholamines (e.g. adrenaline and noradrenaline) bind to and activate adrenergic receptors on cell membranes. Adrenergic receptors are a class of G-protein coupled receptors that elicit a variety of tissue-specific effects and exist in several subtypes.  


====Vasculature====
====Vasculature====
The predominant receptor subtype present in blood vessels is the α1-adrenergic receptor, activation of which by catecholamine binding causes activation of the phospholipase-C (PLC), inositol triphosphate (IP3), diacylglycerol (DAG) intracellular signalling pathway. This ultimately results in myocyte contraction, vasoconstriction and consequent increases in systemic blood pressure.
The predominant receptor subtype present in blood vessels is the a1-adrenergic receptor, activation of which by catecholamine binding causes activation of the phospholipase-C (PLC), inositol triphosphate (IP3), diacylglycerol (DAG) intracellular signalling pathway. This ultimately results in myocyte contraction, vasoconstriction and consequent increases in systemic blood pressure.


====Heart====
====Heart====
Although the heart is myogenic, that is the impetus for contraction is self-initiated, the output of the heart is influenced by the central nervous system. The net effect of the sympathetic system on the heart is to increase cardiac output. The adrenergic receptors found in the heart belong to the β-receptor subfamily and include β1 and β3 receptors. Catecholamine binding to β1-receptors in the heart causes increases in cardiac output via a number of mechanisms: positive chronotropic effects, positive inotropic effects increased automaticity and conduction in both ventricular myocytes and the atrioventricular (AV) node. However β3-receptor activation antagonises these actions, producing a negative inotropic effect and providing an inbuilt control system within the heart.
Although the heart is myogenic, that is the impetus for contraction is self-initiated, the output of the heart is influenced by the central nervous system. The net effect of the sympathetic system on the heart is to increase cardiac output. The adrenergic receptors found in the heart belong to the ß-receptor subfamily and include ß1 and ß3 receptors. Catecholamine binding to ß1-receptors in the heart causes increases in cardiac output via a number of mechanisms: positive chronotropic effects, positive inotropic effects increased automaticity and conduction in both ventricular myocytes and the atrioventricular (AV) node. However ß3-receptor activation antagonises these actions, producing a negative inotropic effect and providing an inbuilt control system within the heart.


Prolonged increase catecholamine levels in the circulation (e.g. when secreted from adrenal tumours or times of stress) can lead to chronic cardiovascular problems such as hypertension and arrhythmias.
Prolonged increase catecholamine levels in the circulation (e.g. when secreted from adrenal tumours or times of stress) can lead to chronic cardiovascular problems such as hypertension and arrhythmias.
Line 40: Line 44:


==Platelet/Clotting System==
==Platelet/Clotting System==
[[File:Platelet_receptors.svg|thumb|400px|Platelet activation and inhibition operates through surface receptors on platelets. Feedback loops enhance platelet activation (e.g. ADP released by platelets increases platelet activation, through the ADP receptor)]]
Platelets (also known as thrombocytes) are small cells lacking nuclei that are responsible for haemostasis, or blood clotting. Damage or injury leading to blood loss and exposure of extracellular collagen fibres is detected, activating platelets. Once activated, platelets become adhesive, sticking to both the damaged vessel wall and each other, forming a clump of cells, or ‘clot’, helping to dam the vessel leak. They then begin to secrete cytokines that encourage invasion of fibroblasts present in the surrounding tissue which form a more permanent patch, either by creating healthy tissue, or depositing extracellular matrix to form a scar.  
Platelets (also known as thrombocytes) are small cells lacking nuclei that are responsible for haemostasis, or blood clotting. Damage or injury leading to blood loss and exposure of extracellular collagen fibres is detected, activating platelets. Once activated, platelets become adhesive, sticking to both the damaged vessel wall and each other, forming a clump of cells, or ‘clot’, helping to dam the vessel leak. They then begin to secrete cytokines that encourage invasion of fibroblasts present in the surrounding tissue which form a more permanent patch, either by creating healthy tissue, or depositing extracellular matrix to form a scar.  


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When administering drugs to a patient, it is crucial to know several facts about the drug in order to maximise efficacy and minimise side-effects/toxicity. These include information about what dose is effective, how long the drug remains active in the body, how quickly it is broken down/removed from the body, and how easily the body can absorb/use that drug. The following table details these pharmacokinetic properties and how they are calculated:
When administering drugs to a patient, it is crucial to know several facts about the drug in order to maximise efficacy and minimise side-effects/toxicity. These include information about what dose is effective, how long the drug remains active in the body, how quickly it is broken down/removed from the body, and how easily the body can absorb/use that drug. The following table details these pharmacokinetic properties and how they are calculated:


Property Description Standard units (Abbreviation) Formula
{| class="wikitable" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"
Dose Amount of active drug given to patient mg (D) Drug Specific (From clinical studies)
|-
Concentration Amount of drug in a given plasma volume µg/ml (C) = D / Vd
!Property
EC50 The concentration of drug needed to elicit a response halfway between zero and maximal responses. µg/ml (EC50)
!Description
            y=bottom+ (Top-Bottom)/(1+ [x/EC50] Hill Coefficient)
!Standard units (Abbreviation)
Volume of Distribution The theoretical volume the drug would occupy if distributed uniformly throughout the tissues to elicit the current plasma concentration. L (Vd) D / C
!Formula
Elimination Constant (Rate) The rate at which the drug is removed from the body. h-1 (Ke) ln(2) / t1/2  or  CL / Vd
|-
Bioavailability How much of the administered dose is available for actual use by the body. no units as expressing a fraction (f)
!Dose
100 ×  (AUC (po)×D (iv))/(AUC (iv)×D (po))
|Amount of active drug given to patient
|align="center"|mg (D)
|Drug Specific (From clinical studies)
|-
!Concentration
|Amount of drug in a given plasma volume
|align="center"|µg/ml (C)
|align="center"|= D / Vd
|-
!EC<sub>50</sub>
|The concentration of drug needed to elicit a response halfway between zero and maximal responses.
|align="center"|µg/ml (EC<sub>50</sub>)
|align="center"|y = bottom + (Top-Bottom)/(1+ [x/EC50] Hill Coefficient)
|-
!Volume of Distribution
|The theoretical volume the drug would occupy if distributed uniformly throughout the tissues to elicit the current plasma concentration.
|align="center"|L (Vd)
|align="center"|D / C
|-
!Elimination Constant (Rate)
|The rate at which the drug is removed from the body.
|align="center"|h-1 (Ke)
|align="center"|ln(2) / t1/2  or  CL / Vd
|-
!Bioavailability
|How much of the administered dose is available for actual use by the body.
|no units as expressing a fraction (f)
|align="center"|100 ×  (AUC (po)×D (iv))/(AUC (iv)×D (po))


AUC = Area under curve  po = oral administration  iv = intravenous administration
AUC = Area under curve  po = oral administration  iv = intravenous administration
Cmax or Cmin The maximum (Cmax) /  minimum (Cmin) plasma drug concentration reached following drug administration µg/ml (Cmax or Cmin) Identified via direct measurement of plasma C
|-
tmax The time it takes for a drug to reach Cmax following administration h (tmax) Identified via direct measurement of plasma C over time
!Cmax or Cmin
Half-life The time it takes for a drug to reach half its original concentration h (t1/2) ln(2) / Ke
|The maximum (Cmax) /  minimum (Cmin) plasma drug concentration reached following drug administration
Drug Clearance The volume of plasma cleared of the drug over a set time l/h (CL) Vd x Ke  or  D / Area under curve
|align="center"|µg/ml (Cmax or Cmin)
|Identified via direct measurement of plasma C
|-
!tmax
|The time it takes for a drug to reach Cmax following administration
|align="center"|h (tmax)
|Identified via direct measurement of plasma C over time
|-
!Half-life
|The time it takes for a drug to reach half its original concentration
|align="center"|h (t1/2)
|align="center"|ln(2) / Ke
|-
!Drug Clearance
|The volume of plasma cleared of the drug over a set time
|align="center"|l/h (CL)
|align="center"|Vd x Ke  or  D / Area under curve
|}


Common Drug-Drug Interactions
==Common Drug-Drug Interactions==
It is important to be aware of the interactions that can occur between concomitantly administered drugs, as they may effect efficacy and/or toxicity, or produce adverse side effects. Such interactions could for example affect drug absorption, drug bioavailability or efficacy, or combine to produce unwanted metabolites, as well as possibly having effects on clinical analyses. If a combination of two drugs decreases the effect of one or both of them, the interaction is termed an antagonistic effect; however if, conversely, a combination of two drugs enhances the effect of one or both of them, the interaction is termed a synergistic effect. Drugs that act on the cardiovascular system are high in interactivity, which is an issue as cardiovascular patients normally receive more than one drug. Some common drug—drug interactions related to cardiovascular drugs are listed below:
It is important to be aware of the interactions that can occur between concomitantly administered drugs, as they may effect efficacy and/or toxicity, or produce adverse side effects. Such interactions could for example affect drug absorption, drug bioavailability or efficacy, or combine to produce unwanted metabolites, as well as possibly having effects on clinical analyses. If a combination of two drugs decreases the effect of one or both of them, the interaction is termed an antagonistic effect; however if, conversely, a combination of two drugs enhances the effect of one or both of them, the interaction is termed a synergistic effect. Drugs that act on the cardiovascular system are high in interactivity, which is an issue as cardiovascular patients normally receive more than one drug. Some common drug—drug interactions related to cardiovascular drugs are listed below:
Drug Drugs that ↑drug action Drugs that ↓ drug action
 
Digoxin Diuretics
{| class="wikitable" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"
Antiarrhythmics
|-
Macrolide antibiotics
!Drug
Cholestyramine, neomycin
!Drugs that <big>↑</big> drug action
Keto- and intraconazole
!Drugs that <big></big> drug action
Calcium antagonists
|-
Cyclosporine, indomethacin
!Digoxin
HMG CoA reductase inhibitors
|valign="top"|
Benzodiazepines
*Diuretics
Amiodarone
*Antiarrhythmics
Verapamil Rifampicin
*Macrolide antibiotics
Antacids (liquid)
*Cholestyramine
Warfarin Furosemide
*Neomycin
Amiodarone
*Keto- and intraconazole
Sulfa, macrolide and quinolone  
*Calcium antagonists
  antibiotics
*Cyclosporine, indomethacin
NSAIDs
*HMG CoA reductase inhibitors
Azathioprine
*Benzodiazepines
Phenobarbitone
*Amiodarone
Carbamazepine
*Verapamil
Dexamethasone
|valign="top"|
Prednisolone
*Rifampicin
Rifampicin
*Antacids (liquid)
Vitamin K
|-
Raloxifene
!Warfarin
Clopidogrel Rifampicin
|valign="top"|
Caffeine
*Furosemide
Methylxanthines
*Amiodarone
Phosphodiesterase inhibitors Statins
*Sulfa
Calcium channel blockers
*Macrolide and quinolone antibiotics
Warfarin
*NSAIDs
Proton pump inhibitors
|valign="top"|
Furosemide
*Azathioprine
NSAIDs
*Phenobarbitone
Phenytoin
*Carbamazepine
Colesevelam
*Dexamethasone
ACE Inhibitors NSAIDs
*Prednisolone
Probenecid
*Rifampicin
Calcium channel blockers Indomethacin
*Vitamin K
Antacids
*Raloxifene
β-blockers Amiodarone
|-
Calcium channel blockers
!Clopidogrel
Diltiazem
|valign="top"|
Phenoxybenzamine Phenobarbital
*Rifampicin
Rifampicin
*Caffeine
Cimetidine
*Methylxanthines
Antacids (liquid)
*Phosphodiesterase inhibitors
NSAIDs
|valign="top"|
Statins Amiodarone
*Statins
Verapamil
*Calcium channel blockers
Fibrates
*Warfarin
Amprenavir
*Proton pump inhibitors
Diltiazem Nevirapine
|-
Rifampicin
!Furosemide
|
|valign="top"|
*NSAIDs
*Phenytoin
*Colesevelam
|-
!ACE Inhibitors
|valign="top"|
*NSAIDs
*Probenecid
*Calcium channel blockers
|valign="top"|
*Indomethacin
*Antacids
|-
-blockers
|valign="top"|
*Amiodarone
*Calcium channel blockers
*Diltiazem
*Phenoxybenzamine
|valign="top"|
*Phenobarbital
*Rifampicin
*Cimetidine
*Antacids (liquid)
*NSAIDs
|-
!Statins
|valign="top"|
*Amiodarone
*Verapamil
*Fibrates
*Amprenavir
*Diltiazem
|valign="top"|
*Nevirapine
*Rifampicin
|}


There are several mechanisms by which drugs are broken down by the body, usually via degradation by enzymes. One common family of enzymes involved in drug metabolismis the cytochrome P450 (CYP) family; a large, diverse group of enzymes that encourage oxidation of a variety of substrates, both endogenous (e.g. steroid hormones) and exogenous (e.g.  toxins and drugs). CYP enzymes account for up to 75% of drug metabolism, aiding some drugs to form their active compounds but mostly deactivating drugs into inactive metabolites to be excreted. CYP enzymes can influence drug actions in several ways; they can increase drug metabolism (either increasing action via formation of the active by-product or decreasing action by metabolism of the active drug) or their action can be inhibited by drugs that compete for access to the CYP enzymes active site, preventing the normal interaction between drug and enzyme. Many drugs exert their interactions with other drugs viainterference with the CYP system. For example, if Drug A is metabolised by CYP and Drug B inhibits CYP activity, co-administration will result in a decreased bioavailability of Drug A. In humans there are 18 families and 43 subfamilies of the CYP group of enzymes, which target different substrates. Some CYP enzymes important in cardiovascular medicine, their cardiovascular-drug substrates and some of their interactions are shown in the table below:  
There are several mechanisms by which drugs are broken down by the body, usually via degradation by enzymes. One common family of enzymes involved in drug metabolismis the cytochrome P450 (CYP) family; a large, diverse group of enzymes that encourage oxidation of a variety of substrates, both endogenous (e.g. steroid hormones) and exogenous (e.g.  toxins and drugs). CYP enzymes account for up to 75% of drug metabolism, aiding some drugs to form their active compounds but mostly deactivating drugs into inactive metabolites to be excreted. CYP enzymes can influence drug actions in several ways; they can increase drug metabolism (either increasing action via formation of the active by-product or decreasing action by metabolism of the active drug) or their action can be inhibited by drugs that compete for access to the CYP enzymes active site, preventing the normal interaction between drug and enzyme. Many drugs exert their interactions with other drugs viainterference with the CYP system. For example, if Drug A is metabolised by CYP and Drug B inhibits CYP activity, co-administration will result in a decreased bioavailability of Drug A. In humans there are 18 families and 43 subfamilies of the CYP group of enzymes, which target different substrates. Some CYP enzymes important in cardiovascular medicine, their cardiovascular-drug substrates and some of their interactions are shown in the table below:  
Enzyme Substrates (e.g.) Inhibitors (e.g.) Inducers (e.g.)
CYP2C19 Clopidogrel
Propranolol
Warfarin Moclobemide
Chloramphenicol
Many anti-convulsants (Valproate)
Proton pump inhibitors (Omeprazole)
Rifampicin
Carbamazepine
Prednisone
CYP3A4 Donepezil
Statins (Atorvastatin)
Ca-channel blockers (Nifedipine)
Amiodarone
Dronedarone
Quinidine
PDE5 Inhibitors (Sildenafil)
Kinins
Caffeine
Eplerenone
Propranolol
Salmeterol
Warfarin
Clopidogrel Protease inhibitors (Ritonavir)
Macrolides (Clarithromycin)
Chloramphenicol
Nefazodone
Some Ca-channel blockers (Verapamil)
Cimetidine
Some azole anti-fungals (Ketaconazole)
Grapefruit juice Some anti-convulsants (Carbamazepine)
Baribiturates (Phenobarbital)
St. John’s Wort
Some reverse transcriptase inhibitors (Efavirenz)
Some Hypoglycaemics (Pioglitazone)
Glucocorticoids
Modafinil
CYP2C9 Fluvastatin
Angiotensin receptor II agonists (losartan)
Warfarin
Torasemide Some azole anti-fungals (Fluconazole)
Amiodarone
Antihistamines (Cyclizine)
Chloramphenicol
Fluvastatin
Fluvoxamine
Probenecid
Sertraline Rifampicin
Secobarbital
CYP2D6 β-blockers (Propranolol)
Class I anti-arrythmics (Flecainide)
Donepezil
SSRIs (Fluoxetine)
Quinidine
Sertraline
Terbinafine
Amiodarone
Cinacalcet
Ritonavir
Antipsychotics (Haloperidol)
Antihistamines (Promethazine)
Metoclopramide
Ranitidine
Mibefradil Rifampicin
Dexamethasone
Glutethimide
In addition to drug-drug interactions, the actions of many drugs are also affected by food or drink. For example, care should be taken with alcohol consumption with many kinds of drugs, as it can put stress on the liver which is already working hard to metabolise drugs in the body. Grapefruit juice too can cause issues, as it is known to inhibit CYP3a. For more information of interactions between drugs and food/drinks see this guide: http://www.fda.gov/downloads/Drugs/ResourcesForYou/Consumers/BuyingUsingMedicineSafely/EnsuringSafeUseofMedicine/GeneralUseofMedicine/UCM229033.pdf


Cardiovascular Drugs
{| class="wikitable" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"
Drug Category Drug Type
|-
Examples (generic name)
!Enzyme
Indications Typical Dosage Guidelines/Class of Indication Side Effects (Prevalence %)
!Substrates (e.g.)
Anti-hypertensives Diuretics Furosemide Oedema Furosemide: 20-40mg once daily mild gastro-intestinal disturbances, pancreatitis, hepatic encephalopathy, postural hypotension, temporary increase in serum-cholesterol and triglyceride concentration, hyperglycaemia, acute urinary retention, electrolyte disturbances, metabolic alkalosis, blood disorders, hyperuricaemia, visual disturbances, tinnitus and deafness, and hypersensitivity reactions (including rash, photosensitivity, and pruritus).
!Inhibitors (e.g.)
Resistant Hypertension Furosemide: 40-80mg once daily ESC Guidelines (European Heart Journal
!Inducers (e.g.)
doi:10.1093/eurheartj/ehs104):
|-
Hypertension in symptomatic (NYHA class II-IV) HF and LVD: Class IC
!CYP2C19
ACE Inhibitors Captopril, Monopril Hypertension Captopril: 12.5mg twice daily ESC and EASD Guidelines (European Heart Journal doi: 10.1093/eurheart/ehl261)
|valign="top"|
Hypertension: Class IA
*Clopidogrel
*Propranolol
*Warfarin
|valign="top"|
*Moclobemide
*Chloramphenicol
*Many anti-convulsants (Valproate)
*Proton pump inhibitors (Omeprazole)
|valign="top"|
*Rifampicin
*Carbamazepine
*Prednisone
|-
!CYP3A4
|valign="top"|
*Donepezil
*Statins (Atorvastatin)
*Ca-channel blockers (Nifedipine)
*Amiodarone
*Dronedarone
*Quinidine
*PDE5 Inhibitors (Sildenafil)
*Kinins
*Caffeine
*Eplerenone
*Propranolol
*Salmeterol
*Warfarin
*Clopidogrel
|valign="top"|
*Protease inhibitors (Ritonavir)
*Macrolides (Clarithromycin)
*Chloramphenicol
*Nefazodone
*Some Ca-channel blockers (Verapamil)
*Cimetidine
*Some azole anti-fungals (Ketaconazole)
*Grapefruit juice
|valign="top"|
*Some anti-convulsants (Carbamazepine)
*Baribiturates (Phenobarbital)
*St. John’s Wort
*Some reverse transcriptase inhibitors (Efavirenz)
*Some Hypoglycaemics (Pioglitazone)
*Glucocorticoids
*Modafinil
|-
!CYP2C9
|valign="top"|
*Fluvastatin
*Angiotensin receptor II agonists (losartan)
*Warfarin
*Torasemide
|valign="top"|
*Some azole anti-fungals (Fluconazole)
*Amiodarone
*Antihistamines (Cyclizine)
*Chloramphenicol
*Fluvastatin
*Fluvoxamine
*Probenecid
*Sertraline
|valign="top"|
*Rifampicin
*Secobarbital
|-
!CYP2D6
|valign="top"|
*ß-blockers (Propranolol)
*Class I anti-arrythmics (Flecainide)
*Donepezil
|valign="top"|
*SSRIs (Fluoxetine)
*Quinidine
*Sertraline
*Terbinafine
*Amiodarone
*Cinacalcet
*Ritonavir
*Antipsychotics (Haloperidol)
*Antihistamines (Promethazine)
*Metoclopramide
*Ranitidine
*Mibefradil
|valign="top"|
*Rifampicin
*Dexamethasone
*Glutethimide
|}


ESC Guidelines (European Heart Journal
In addition to drug-drug interactions, the actions of many drugs are also affected by food or drink. For example, care should be taken with alcohol consumption with many kinds of drugs, as it can put stress on the liver which is already working hard to metabolise drugs in the body. Grapefruit juice too can cause issues, as it is known to inhibit CYP3a. For more information of interactions between drugs and food/drinks see this guide: [http://www.fda.gov/downloads/Drugs/ResourcesForYou/Consumers/BuyingUsingMedicineSafely/EnsuringSafeUseofMedicine/GeneralUseofMedicine/UCM229033.pdf General Use of Medicine]
doi:10.1093/eurheartj/ehs104):
Hypertension in symptomatic (NYHA class II-IV) HF and LVD: Class IA


ESC Guidelines: (European Heart Journal
{| class="wikitable" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"
doi:10.1093/eurheartj/ehs092):
|-
Hypertension in diabetics: Class IA Hypotension (2.4%), renal impairment, persistent dry cough, angioedema, rash pancreatitis, upper respiratory-tract symptoms (2-10%), gastro-intestinal symptoms (1-2%), altered liver function tests, cholestatic jaundice, hepatitis, fulminant hepatic necrosis and failure, hyperkalaemia (2%), hypoglycaemia, blood disorders including thrombocytopenia, leucopenia, neutropenia, headache (3%), dizziness (2-12%), fatigue, malaise, taste disturbance, paraesthesia, bronchospasm, fever, serositis, vasculitis, myalgia (3%), arthralgia, positive antinuclear antibody, raised erythrocyte sedimentation rate, eosinophilia, leucocytosis, and photosensitivity.
|+Cardiovascular Drugs
Heart Failure Captopril: 12.5mg 3 times daily ESC Guidelines (European Heart Journal (2012) 33, 2569–2619
|-
doi:10.1093/eurheartj/ehs215):
!Drug Type
Post STEMI: Class IA
!Examples (generic name)
!Indications
!Typical Dosage
!Guidelines / Class of Indication
!Side Effects (Prevalence %)
|-
|colspan="6" bgcolor="#E6E6FA"|:'''Anti-hypertensives'''
|-
|rowspan="2"|Diuretics
|rowspan="2"|Furosemide
|Oedema
|Furosemide: 20-40mg once daily
|
|rowspan="2" valign="top"|Mild gastro-intestinal disturbances, pancreatitis, hepatic encephalopathy, postural hypotension, temporary increase in serum-cholesterol and triglyceride concentration, hyperglycaemia, acute urinary retention, electrolyte disturbances, metabolic alkalosis, blood disorders, hyperuricaemia, visual disturbances, tinnitus and deafness, and hypersensitivity reactions (including rash, photosensitivity, and pruritus).
|-
|Resistant Hypertension
|Furosemide: 40-80mg once daily
|Hypertension in symptomatic (NYHA class II-IV) HF and LVD: Class IC <cite>Esc1</cite>
|-
|rowspan="4"|ACE Inhibitors
|rowspan="4"|Captopril, Monopril
|Hypertension
|Captopril: 12.5mg twice daily
|Hypertension: Class IA <cite>Esc2</cite>


ESC and EASD Guidelines (European Heart Journal doi: 10.1093/eurheart/ehl261)
Hypertension in symptomatic (NYHA class II-IV) HF and LVD: Class IA <cite>Esc1</cite>
Diabetic patients: Class IC


ESC Guidelines (European Heart Journal
Hypertension in diabetics: Class IA <cite>Esc3</cite>
doi:10.1093/eurheartj/ehs104):
|rowspan="4" valign="top"|Hypotension (2.4%), renal impairment, persistent dry cough, angioedema, rash pancreatitis, upper respiratory-tract symptoms (2-10%), gastro-intestinal symptoms (1-2%), altered liver function tests, cholestatic jaundice, hepatitis, fulminant hepatic necrosis and failure, hyperkalaemia (2%), hypoglycaemia, blood disorders including thrombocytopenia, leucopenia, neutropenia, headache (3%), dizziness (2-12%), fatigue, malaise, taste disturbance, paraesthesia, bronchospasm, fever, serositis, vasculitis, myalgia (3%), arthralgia, positive antinuclear antibody, raised erythrocyte sedimentation rate, eosinophilia, leucocytosis, and photosensitivity.
Symptomatic (NYHA class II-IV) HF: Class IA
|-
|Heart Failure
|Captopril: 12.5mg 3 times daily
|Post STEMI: Class IA <cite>Esc4</cite>


Acute heart failure with ACS: Class IA
Diabetic patients: Class IC <cite>Esc2</cite>
Prophylaxis Following MI Captopril: 6.25mg once daily
Diabetic nephropathy Captopril: 75-100mg once daily
Angiotensin Receptor Blockers Losartan. Candesartan Hypertension Losartan: 50mg once daily ESC and EASD Guidelines (European Heart Journal doi: 10.1093/eurheart/ehl261)
Hypertension: Class IA


ESC Guidelines: (European Heart Journal
Symptomatic (NYHA class II-IV) HF: Class IA; Acute heart failure with ACS: Class IA <cite>Esc1</cite>
doi:10.1093/eurheartj/ehs092):
|-
Hypertension in diabetics: Class IA gastro-intestinal disturbances (<3%), dizziness (14%), angina, palpitation, oedema, dyspnoea, headache (14%), malaise, urticaria, pruritus, rash;
|Prophylaxis Following MI
Left ventricular hypertrophy Losartan: 12.5-150mg daily ESC Guidelines (European Heart Journal (2012) 33, 2569–2619
|Captopril: 6.25mg once daily
doi:10.1093/eurheartj/ehs215):
|
LVH:  Class IB
|-
Diabetic nephropathy Losartan: 50mg daily
|Diabetic nephropathy
Alpha Blockers Prazosin, Doxazosin Hypertension Prazosin: 1-10mg 2-3 times daily Drowsiness, hypotension (notably postural hypotension) (10-70% initially), syncope (1%), asthenia, dizziness, depression, headache (8-18%), dry mouth, gastro-intestinal disturbances, oedema, blurred vision (<5%), intra-operative floppy iris syndrome, rhinitis (<4%), erectile disorders (including priapism), tachycardia and palpitations (7-14%), gastrointestinal side-symptoms (4-5%), hypersensitivity reactions including rash, pruritus and angioedema.
|Captopril: 75-100mg once daily
Congestive Heart Failure Prazosin: 4-20mg daily
|
Raynaud’s Syndrome Prazosin: 1-2mg daily
|-
Beta Blockers Atenolol, Propranolol Hypertension Atenolol: 25-50mg daily Gastro-intestinal disturbances (2-4%); bradycardia, heart failure, hypotension, conduction disorders, peripheral vasoconstriction, bronchospasm, dyspnoea; headache, fatigue, sleep disturbances (2-5%), paraesthesia, dizziness (2-5%), vertigo, psychoses; sexual dysfunction; purpura, thrombocytopenia; visual disturbances; exacerbation of psoriasis, alopecia; rarely rashes and dry eyes
|rowspan="3"|Angiotensin Receptor Blockers
Angina Atenolol: 100mg once/twice daily ESC and EASD Guidelines (European Heart Journal doi: 10.1093/eurheart/ehl261)
|rowspan="3"|Losartan, Candesartan
ACS: Class IIaB
|Hypertension
|Losartan: 50mg once daily
|Hypertension: Class IA <cite>Esc2</cite>


ESC Guidelines (European Heart Journal
Hypertension in diabetics: Class IA  <cite>Esc3</cite>
doi:10.1093/eurheartj/ehs104):
|rowspan="3" valign="top"|Gastro-intestinal disturbances (<3%), dizziness (14%), angina, palpitation, oedema, dyspnoea, headache (14%), malaise, urticaria, pruritus, rash;
Angina in symptomatic (NYHA class II-IV) HF and LVD: Class IA
|-
|Left ventricular hypertrophy
Arrhythmias Atenolol: 50-100mg daily ESC Guidelines (European Heart Journal (2012) 33, 2569–2619
|Losartan: 12.5-150mg daily
doi:10.1093/eurheartj/ehs215):
|LVH:  Class IB  <cite>Esc4</cite>
|-
|Diabetic nephropathy
|Losartan: 50mg daily
|
|-
|rowspan="3"|Alpha Blockers
|rowspan="3"|Prazosin, Doxazosin
|Hypertension
|Prazosin: 1-10mg 2-3 times daily
|
|rowspan="3" valign="top"|Drowsiness, hypotension (notably postural hypotension) (10-70% initially), syncope (1%), asthenia, dizziness, depression, headache (8-18%), dry mouth, gastro-intestinal disturbances, oedema, blurred vision (<5%), intra-operative floppy iris syndrome, rhinitis (<4%), erectile disorders (including priapism), tachycardia and palpitations (7-14%), gastrointestinal side-symptoms (4-5%), hypersensitivity reactions including rash, pruritus and angioedema.
|-
|Congestive Heart Failure
|Prazosin: 4-20mg daily
|
|-
|Raynaud’s Syndrome
|Prazosin: 1-2mg daily
|
|-
|rowspan="4"|Beta Blockers
|rowspan="4"|Atenolol, Propranolol
|Hypertension
|Atenolol: 25-50mg daily
|
|rowspan="4" valign="top"|Gastro-intestinal disturbances (2-4%); bradycardia, heart failure, hypotension, conduction disorders, peripheral vasoconstriction, bronchospasm, dyspnoea; headache, fatigue, sleep disturbances (2-5%), paraesthesia, dizziness (2-5%), vertigo, psychoses; sexual dysfunction; purpura, thrombocytopenia; visual disturbances; exacerbation of psoriasis, alopecia; rarely rashes and dry eyes.
|-
|Angina
|Atenolol: 100mg once/twice daily
|ACS: Class IIaB <cite>Esc2</cite>


Atrial fibrillation: Class IA
Angina in symptomatic (NYHA class II-IV) HF and LVD: Class IA <cite>Esc1</cite>
Polymorphic VT: Class IB
|-
|Arrhythmias
|Atenolol: 50-100mg daily
|Atrial fibrillation: Class IA; Polymorphic VT: Class IB <cite>Esc4</cite>


ESC Guidelines (European Heart Journal
Symptomatic (NYHA class II-IV) HF, LVD and AF: Class IA; Management of VA in HF: Class IA <cite>Esc1</cite>
doi:10.1093/eurheartj/ehs104):
Symptomatic (NYHA class II-IV) HF, LVD and AF: Class IA
Management of VA in HF: Class IA


ACC/AHA/ESC Guidelines (Blomström-Lundqvist and Scheinman et al. 2003):
SVT: Class IIbC; Wide QRS-complex tachycardia of unknown origin: Class IIIC; Sinus tachycardia: Class IC; Poorly tolerated AVNRT with haemodynamic intolerance: Class IIaC; Recurrent symptomatic AVNRT: Class IC; Documented PSVT with only dual AV-nodal pathways or single echo beats demonstrated during electrophysiological study and no other identified cause of arrhythmia: Class IC; Infrequent, well tolerated AVNRT: Class IB; Focal junction tachycardia: Class IIaC; Nonparoxysmal junctional tachycardia: Class IIaC; WPW Syndrome: Class IIaC; AVRT, poorly tolerated: Class IIbC; Since or infrequent AVRT episode(s): Class IIaB; Acute treatment of Focal Atrial Tachycardia: Class IIaC; Prophylactic therapy for AT: Class IC; AF (Poorly tolerated): Class IIaC; AF (Stable flutter): Class IC; Prophylaxis of SVT during pregnancy: Class IIaB <cite>Acc5</cite>
SVT: Class IIbC
|-
Wide QRS-complex tachycardia of unknown origin: Class IIIC
|Migraine
Sinus tachycardia: Class IC
|Atenolol: 50-200mg daily
Poorly tolerated AVNRT with haemodynamic intolerance: Class IIaC
|
Recurrent symptomatic AVNRT: Class IC
|-
Documented PSVT with only dual AV-nodal pathways or single echo beats demonstrated during electrophysiological study and no other identified cause of arrhythmia: Class IC
|rowspan="3"|Calcium Channel Blockers
Infrequent, well tolerated AVNRT: Class IB
|rowspan="3"|Nifedipine, Verapamil, Diltiazem
Focal junction tachycardia: Class IIaC
|Hypertension
Nonparoxysmal junctional tachycardia: Class IIaC
|Nifedipine: 20-30mg once daily
WPW Syndrome: Class IIaC
|Hypertension in symptomatic (NYHA class II-IV) HF and LVD: Class IA <cite>Esc1</cite>
AVRT, poorly tolerated: Class IIbC
|rowspan="3" valign="top"|Gastro-intestinal disturbance (2-11%); hypotension (1-5%), oedema (7-29%), vasodilatation, palpitation; headache (7-35%), dizziness (3-27%), lethargy (4-6%), asthenia (10-12%); less commonly tachycardia (<1-7%), syncope (<1%), chills, nasal congestion, dyspnoea (<3%), anxiety, sleep disturbance (<2%), vertigo (<3%), migraine, paraesthesia, tremor (1-8%), polyuria, dysuria, nocturia, erectile dysfunction (<2%), epistaxis, myalgia, joint swelling, visual disturbance (<2%), sweating (<2%), hypersensitivity reactions (<1%); rarely anorexia, gum hyperplasia, mood disturbances, hyperglycaemia, male infertility, purpura (<1%), and photosensitivity reactions (<1%); also reported dysphagia, intestinal obstruction, intestinal ulcer, bezoar formation, gynaecomastia, agranulocytosis, and anaphylaxis;
Since or infrequent AVRT episode(s): Class IIaB
|-
Acute treatment of Focal Atrial Tachycardia: Class IIaC
|Raynaud’s Syndrome
Prophylactic therapy for AT: Class IC
|Nifedipine: 5-20mg 3 times daily
AF (Poorly tolerated): Class IIaC
|
AF (Stable flutter): Class IC
|-
Prophylaxis of SVT during pregnancy: Class IIaB
|Angina (prophylaxis)
Migraine Atenolol: 50-200mg daily
|Nifedipine: 5-20mg 3 times daily
Calcium Channel Blockers Nifedipine, Verapamil, Diltiazem Hypertension Nifedipine: 20-30mg once daily ESC Guidelines (European Heart Journal
|Angina in symptomatic (NYHA class II-IV) HF and LVD: Class IIaA <cite>Esc1</cite>
doi:10.1093/eurheartj/ehs104):
|-
Hypertension in symptomatic (NYHA class II-IV) HF and LVD: Class IA gastro-intestinal disturbance (2-11%); hypotension (1-5%), oedema (7-29%), vasodilatation, palpitation; headache (7-35%), dizziness (3-27%), lethargy (4-6%), asthenia (10-12%); less commonly tachycardia (<1-7%), syncope (<1%), chills, nasal congestion, dyspnoea (<3%), anxiety, sleep disturbance (<2%), vertigo (<3%), migraine, paraesthesia, tremor (1-8%), polyuria, dysuria, nocturia, erectile dysfunction (<2%), epistaxis, myalgia, joint swelling, visual disturbance (<2%), sweating (<2%), hypersensitivity reactions (<1%); rarely anorexia, gum hyperplasia, mood disturbances, hyperglycaemia, male infertility, purpura (<1%), and photosensitivity reactions (<1%); also reported dysphagia, intestinal obstruction, intestinal ulcer, bezoar formation, gynaecomastia, agranulocytosis, and anaphylaxis;
|colspan="6" bgcolor="#E6E6FA"|'''Anti-Arrhythmics'''
Raynaud’s Syndrome Nifedipine: 5-20mg 3 times daily
|-
Angina (prophylaxis) Nifedipine: 5-20mg 3 times daily ESC Guidelines (European Heart Journal
|Class I (sodium channel blockers)
doi:10.1093/eurheartj/ehs104):
|Flecainide, Lidocaine, Procainamide
Angina in symptomatic (NYHA class II-IV) HF and LVD: Class IIaA
|Ventricular Arrhythmias
Anti-Arrhythmics Class I (sodium channel blockers) Flecainide, Lidocaine, Procainamide Ventricular Arrhythmias Flecainide: 50-100mg twice daily ESC Guidelines(European Heart Journal (2012) 33, 2569–2619
|Flecainide: 50-100mg twice daily
doi:10.1093/eurheartj/ehs215):
|Sustained VT and VF: Class IIbC <cite>Esc4</cite>
Sustained VT and VF: Class IIbC


ACC/AHA/ESC Guidelines (Blomström-Lundqvist and Scheinman et al. 2003):
Pre-excited SVT/AF: Class IB; Wide QRS-complex tachycardia of unknown origin: Lidocaine (Class IIbB) / Procainamide (Class IB); Wide QRS-complex tachycardia of unknown origin with LVD: Class IB; Focal junction tachycardia: Class IIaC; WPW Syndrome: IIaC; AVRT, poorly tolerated: IIaC; Single or infrequent AVRT episode(s): Class IIbC; Acute treatment of Focal Atrial Tachycardia: Class IIaC; Prophylactic therapy for AT: Class IIaC; AF (Stable flutter): Class IIbA; Prophylaxis of SVT during pregnancy: Class IIbB <cite>Acc5</cite>
Pre-excited SVT/AF: Class IB
|Oedema, pro-arrhythmic effects (1-13%); dyspnoea; nervous-system side-effects including dizziness, asthenia, fatigue, fever; visual disturbances (13-28%); rarely pneumonitis, hallucinations, depression, confusion, amnesia, dyskinesia, convulsions, peripheral neuropathy; also reported gastro-intestinal disturbances (1-4%), anorexia, hepatic dysfunction, flushing, syncope, drowsiness, tremor, vertigo, headache, anxiety, insomnia, ataxia, paraesthesia, anaemia, leucopenia, thrombocytopenia, corneal deposits, tinnitus, increased antinuclear antibodies, hypersensitivity reactions (including rash, urticaria, and photosensitivity), increased sweating.
Wide QRS-complex tachycardia of unknown origin: Lidocaine (Class IIbB) / Procainamide (Class IB)
|-
Wide QRS-complex tachycardia of unknown origin with LVD: Class IB
|Class II (Beta blockers)
Focal junction tachycardia: Class IIaC
|(See above)
WPW Syndrome: IIaC
|(See above)
AVRT, poorly tolerated: IIaC
|(See above)
Single or infrequent AVRT episode(s): Class IIbC
|
Acute treatment of Focal Atrial Tachycardia: Class IIaC
|(See above)
Prophylactic therapy for AT: Class IIaC
|-
AF (Stable flutter): Class IIbA
|Class III (Potassium channel blockers)
Prophylaxis of SVT during pregnancy: Class IIbB Oedema, pro-arrhythmic effects (1-13%); dyspnoea; nervous-system side-effects including dizziness, asthenia, fatigue, fever; visual disturbances (13-28%); rarely pneumonitis, hallucinations, depression, confusion, amnesia, dyskinesia, convulsions, peripheral neuropathy; also reported gastro-intestinal disturbances (1-4%), anorexia, hepatic dysfunction, flushing, syncope, drowsiness, tremor, vertigo, headache, anxiety, insomnia, ataxia, paraesthesia, anaemia, leucopenia, thrombocytopenia, corneal deposits, tinnitus, increased antinuclear antibodies, hypersensitivity reactions (including rash, urticaria, and photosensitivity), increased sweating
|Amiodarone, Sotalol
Class II (Beta blockers) (See above) (See above) (See above) (See above)
|Ventricular, Arrhythmias
Class III (Potassium channel blockers) Amiodarone,
|Amiodarone: 200mg 2-3 times daily
Sotalol Ventricular Arrhythmias Amiodarone: 200mg 2-3 times daily ESC Guidelines(European Heart Journal (2012) 33, 2569–2619
|Sustained VT and VF: Class IIaC; Polymorphic VT: Class IC <cite>Esc4</cite>
doi:10.1093/eurheartj/ehs215):
Sustained VT and VF: Class IIaC
Polymorphic VT: Class IC


ESC Guidelines (European Heart Journal
Management of VA in HF: Class IA; Prevention of VA in HF: Class IIbB <cite>Esc1</cite>
doi:10.1093/eurheartj/ehs104):
Management of VA in HF: Class IA
Prevention of VA in HF: Class IIbB


ACC/AHA/ESC Guidelines (Blomström-Lundqvist and Scheinman et al. 2003):
SVT: Class IIBC; Wide QRS-complex tachycardia of unknown origin: Class IB; Wide QRS-complex tachycardia of unknown origin with LVD: Class IB; Recurrent AVNRT unresponsive to beta blocker or calcium-channel blocker and patient not desiring RF ablation: Class IIbC; Focal junction tachycardia: Class IIaC; WPW Syndrome: IIaC; AVRT, poorly tolerated: Class IIaC; Since or infrequent AVRT episode(s): Class IIbB; Acute treatment of Focal Atrial Tachycardia: Class IIaC; Prophylactic therapy for AT: Class IIaC; AF (Poorly tolerated): Class IIbC; AF (Stable flutter): Class IIbC; Prophylaxis of SVT during pregnancy: Class IIIC <cite>Acc5</cite>
SVT: Class IIBC
|Gastro-intestinal disturbances (2-20%)), taste disturbances, hepatic disturbances (up to 50%); bradycardia; pulmonary toxicity (1-17%); tremor (9-59%), sleep disorders; hypothyroidism (5-10%), hyperthyroidism (5-10%); reversible corneal microdeposits (up to 98%); phototoxicity, persistent slate-grey skin discoloration (1-7%), injection-site reactions; less commonly onset or worsening of arrhythmia, conduction disturbances, peripheral neuropathy (1-105) and myopathy; very rarely sinus arrest, bronchospasm, ataxia (2-37%), benign intracranial hypertension, headache, vertigo, epididymo-orchitis, impotence, haemolytic or aplastic anaemia, thrombocytopenia, rash, hypersensitivity including photosensitivity (2-20%), anaphylaxis on rapid injection, hypotension (10-30%), respiratory distress syndrome, sweating, and hot flushes
Wide QRS-complex tachycardia of unknown origin: Class IB
|-
Wide QRS-complex tachycardia of unknown origin with LVD: Class IB
|Class IV (Calcium channel blockers)
Recurrent AVNRT unresponsive to beta blocker or calcium-channel blocker and patient not desiring RF ablation: Class IIbC
|(See above)
Focal junction tachycardia: Class IIaC
|(See above)
WPW Syndrome: IIaC
|(See above)
AVRT, poorly tolerated: Class IIaC
|
Since or infrequent AVRT episode(s): Class IIbB
|(See above)
Acute treatment of Focal Atrial Tachycardia: Class IIaC
|-
Prophylactic therapy for AT: Class IIaC
|rowspan="2"|
AF (Poorly tolerated): Class IIbC
|rowspan="2"|Digoxin
AF (Stable flutter): Class IIbC
|Supra-ventricular Arrhythmias
Prophylaxis of SVT during pregnancy: Class IIIC Gastro-intestinal disturbances (2-20%)), taste disturbances, hepatic disturbances (up to 50%); bradycardia; pulmonary toxicity (1-17%); tremor (9-59%), sleep disorders; hypothyroidism (5-10%), hyperthyroidism (5-10%); reversible corneal microdeposits (up to 98%); phototoxicity, persistent slate-grey skin discoloration (1-7%), injection-site reactions; less commonly onset or worsening of arrhythmia, conduction disturbances, peripheral neuropathy (1-105) and myopathy; very rarely sinus arrest, bronchospasm, ataxia (2-37%), benign intracranial hypertension, headache, vertigo, epididymo-orchitis, impotence, haemolytic or aplastic anaemia, thrombocytopenia, rash, hypersensitivity including photosensitivity (2-20%), anaphylaxis on rapid injection, hypotension (10-30%), respiratory distress syndrome, sweating, and hot flushes
|Acute: 0.75-1.5mg over 24 hours; Maintenance: 125-150µg daily
Class IV (Calcium channel blockers) (See above) (See above) (See above) (See above)
|SVT: Class IIbC; WPW Syndrome: Class IIIC; AVRT, poorly tolerated: Class IIIC; Since or infrequent AVRT episode(s): Class IIIC; Prophylaxis of SVT during pregnancy: Class IC <cite>Acc5</cite>
- Digoxin Supra-ventricular Arrhythmias Acute: 0.75-1.5mg over 24 hours
|rowspan="3" valign="top"|Gastro-intestinal disturbances (vomiting, diarrhoea, anorexia, abdominal pain) (25%); arrhythmias (up to 50%), AV conduction disturbances (50%); nervous system disturbances (dizziness, apathy, confusion, headache, fatigue, weakness) (25%); blurred or yellow vision; rash, eosinophilia, depression, anorexia, intestinal ischaemia and necrosis, psychosis, gynaecomastia on long-term use, and thrombocytopenia.
Maintenance: 125-150µg daily ACC/AHA/ESC Guidelines (Blomström-Lundqvist and Scheinman et al. 2003):
|-
SVT: Class IIbC
|Heart Failure
WPW Syndrome: Class IIIC
|62.5-125 µg daily
AVRT, poorly tolerated: Class IIIC
|Symptomatic (NYHA class II-IV) HF: Class IIbB
Since or infrequent AVRT episode(s): Class IIIC
Prophylaxis of SVT during pregnancy: Class IC Gastro-intestinal disturbances (vomiting, diarrhoea, anorexia, abdominal pain) (25%); arrhythmias (up to 50%), AV conduction disturbances (50%); nervous system disturbances (dizziness, apathy, confusion, headache, fatigue, weakness) (25%); blurred or yellow vision; rash, eosinophilia, depression, anorexia, intestinal ischaemia and necrosis, psychosis, gynaecomastia on long-term use, and thrombocytopenia
Heart Failure 62.5-125 µg daily ESC Guidelines (European Heart Journal
doi:10.1093/eurheartj/ehs104):
Symptomatic (NYHA class II-IV) HF: Class IIbB
ESC Guidelines Symptomatic (NYHA class II-IV) HF, LVD and AF: Class IB
Acute HF with AF and VT: Class IC
Anti-platelet Drugs - Aspirin Prevention of thrombotic cerebro- or cardio-vascular disease 75mg once/day ESC and EASD Guidelines (European Heart Journal doi: 10.1093/eurheart/ehl261)
Prevention in AF: Class IC
Prevention in diabetic patients: IIaB


ESC Guidelines (European Heart Journal
Symptomatic (NYHA class II-IV) HF, LVD and AF: Class IB; Acute HF with AF and VT: Class IC <cite>Esc1</cite>
doi:10.1093/eurheartj/ehs104):
|-
Prevention in Symptomatic (NYHA class II-IV) HF and AF: Class IIA
|colspan="6" bgcolor="#E6E6FA"|'''Anti-platelet Drugs'''
|-
|rowspan="7"|
|rowspan="2"|Aspirin
|Prevention of thrombotic cerebro- or cardio-vascular disease
|75mg once/day
|Prevention in AF: Class IC; Prevention in diabetic patients: IIaB <cite>Esc2</cite>


ESC Guidelines: (European Heart Journal
Prevention in Symptomatic (NYHA class II-IV) HF and AF: Class IIA <cite>Esc1</cite>
doi:10.1093/eurheartj/ehs092):
Prevention in hypertensive patients with CV events: Class IA
Prevention in hypertensive patients without CV history but with reduced renal function/high risk: Class IIbA


ESC Guidelines: (European Heart Journal
Prevention in hypertensive patients with CV events: Class IA; Prevention in hypertensive patients without CV history but with reduced renal function/high risk: Class IIbA <cite>Esc3</cite>
doi:10.1093/eurheartj/ehs092):
Post-MI: Class Ia
Bronchospasm (10-30% in asthmatics); gastro-intestinal irritation (up to 83%), gastro-intestinal haemorrhage (occasionally major), also other haemorrhage (e.g. intracranial (0.5%), subconjunctival), chest pain (8.3%), oedema (4.5%), hypertension (4.3%).
Pain / pyrexia 300-600mg every 4-6 hours as necessary
- Clopidogrel Prevention of thrombotic events (esp. when warfarin not tolerated) 75mg once/day ESC and EASD Guidelines (European Heart Journal doi: 10.1093/eurheart/ehl261)
Prevention in diabetic patients: IIaB
Primary and secondary prevention of stroke: Class IB


ESC Guidelines (European Heart Journal
Post-MI: Class Ia <cite>Esc3</cite>
doi:10.1093/eurheartj/ehs104):
|rowspan="2" valign="top"|Bronchospasm (10-30% in asthmatics); gastro-intestinal irritation (up to 83%), gastro-intestinal haemorrhage (occasionally major), also other haemorrhage (e.g. intracranial (0.5%), subconjunctival), chest pain (8.3%), oedema (4.5%), hypertension (4.3%).
Prevention in Symptomatic (NYHA class II-IV) HF and AF: Class IIA
|-
|Pain / pyrexia
|300-600mg every 4-6 hours as necessary
|
|-
|rowspan="3"|Clopidogrel
|Prevention of thrombotic events (esp. when warfarin not tolerated)
|75mg once/day
|Prevention in diabetic patients: IIaB; Primary and secondary prevention of stroke: Class IB <cite>Esc2</cite>


Prevention in Symptomatic (NYHA class II-IV) HF and AF: Class IIA
Prevention in Symptomatic (NYHA class II-IV) HF and AF: Class IIA <cite>Esc1</cite>


ESC Guidelines: (European Heart Journal
Acute phase of coronary artery syndrome: Class IB; Non-cardioembolic cerebral ischaemic events: Class IA <cite>Esc3</cite>
doi:10.1093/eurheartj/ehs092):
|rowspan="3" valign="top"|Dyspepsia (5.2%), abdominal pain (5.6%), diarrhoea (4.5%); bleeding disorders including gastro-intestinal (2.0%) and intracranial (0.4%), nausea (3.4%), vomiting, gastritis, flatulence, constipation, gastric and duodenal ulcers, headache (7.6%), epistaxis (2.9%), dizziness (6.2%), paraesthesia, leucopenia, decreased platelets (very rarely severe thrombocytopenia), eosinophilia, rash (4.2%), pruritus (3.3%), vertigo, colitis, pancreatitis, hepatitis (<1%), acute liver failure, hypertension (4.3%), chest pain (8.3%), oedema (4.1%), vasculitis, confusion, hallucinations, taste disturbance, cough (3.9%), fatigue (4.8%) stomatitis, bronchospasm, interstitial pneumonitis, pyrexia (2.2%), blood disorders including thrombocytopenic purpura (5.3%), agranulocytosis, neutropenia (0.04%) and pancytopenia and hypersensitivity-like reactions (<0.1%)including fever, glomerulonephritis, arthralgia, Stevens-Johnson syndrome, toxic epidermal necrolysis, lichen planus.
Acute phase of coronary artery syndrome: Class IB
|-
Non-cardioembolic cerebral ischaemic events: Class IA Dyspepsia (5.2%), abdominal pain (5.6%), diarrhoea (4.5%); bleeding disorders including gastro-intestinal (2.0%) and intracranial (0.4%), nausea (3.4%), vomiting, gastritis, flatulence, constipation, gastric and duodenal ulcers, headache (7.6%), epistaxis (2.9%), dizziness (6.2%), paraesthesia, leucopenia, decreased platelets (very rarely severe thrombocytopenia), eosinophilia, rash (4.2%), pruritus (3.3%), vertigo, colitis, pancreatitis, hepatitis (<1%), acute liver failure, hypertension (4.3%), chest pain (8.3%), oedema (4.1%), vasculitis, confusion, hallucinations, taste disturbance, cough (3.9%), fatigue (4.8%) stomatitis, bronchospasm, interstitial pneumonitis, pyrexia (2.2%), blood disorders including thrombocytopenic purpura (5.3%), agranulocytosis, neutropenia (0.04%) and pancytopenia and hypersensitivity-like reactions (<0.1%)including fever, glomerulonephritis, arthralgia, Stevens-Johnson syndrome, toxic epidermal necrolysis, lichen planus
|Acute myocardial infarction
Acute myocardial infarction 300mg daily initially then 75mg once/day ESC Guidelines(European Heart Journal (2012) 33, 2569–2619
|300mg daily initially then 75mg once/day
doi:10.1093/eurheartj/ehs215):
|Post STEMI: Class IA <cite>Esc4</cite>
Post STEMI: Class IA
|-
Acute coronary syndrome 300mg daily initially then 75mg once/day ESC and EASD Guidelines (European Heart Journal doi: 10.1093/eurheart/ehl261)
|Acute coronary syndrome
ACS: Class IIaC
|300mg daily initially then 75mg once/day
- Prasugrel Prevention of thrombotic events. 60mg bolus then 5-10mg once daily ESC Guidelines (European Heart Journal
|ACS: Class IIaC <cite>Esc2</cite>
doi:10.1093/eurheartj/ehs104):
|-
Prevention in Symptomatic (NYHA class II-IV) HF and AF: Class IIA
|Prasugrel
|Prevention of thrombotic events.
|60mg bolus then 5-10mg once daily
|Prevention in Symptomatic (NYHA class II-IV) HF and AF: Class IIA <cite>Esc1</cite>


ESC Guidelines: (European Heart Journal
Acute phase of coronary artery syndrome: Class IB <cite>Esc3</cite>
doi:10.1093/eurheartj/ehs092):
|Haemorrhage (11.3%) (including gastro-intestinal (1.5%) and intracranial), haematoma, haematuria, hypertension (7.5%), hypotension (3.9%), headache (5.5%), back pain (5.0%), dyspnoea (4.9%), nausea (4.6%), dizziness (4.1%), cough (3.9%), fatigue (3.7%), chest pain (3.1%), arrhythmias including atrial fibrillation (2.9%) and bradycardia (2.9%), rash (2.8%), pyrexia (2.7%), oedema (2.7%), diarrhoea (2.3%), hypercholesterolaemia/hyperlipidaemia (7.5%), anaemia, rash,hypersensitivity reactions including angioedema (0.06%), thrombocytopenia (0.06%), thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura.
Acute phase of coronary artery syndrome: Class IB
|-
Haemorrhage (11.3%) (including gastro-intestinal (1.5%) and intracranial), haematoma, haematuria, hypertension (7.5%), hypotension (3.9%), headache (5.5%), back pain (5.0%), dyspnoea (4.9%), nausea (4.6%), dizziness (4.1%), cough (3.9%), fatigue (3.7%), chest pain (3.1%), arrhythmias including atrial fibrillation (2.9%) and bradycardia (2.9%), rash (2.8%), pyrexia (2.7%), oedema (2.7%), diarrhoea (2.3%), hypercholesterolaemia/hyperlipidaemia (7.5%), anaemia, rash,hypersensitivity reactions including angioedema (0.06%), thrombocytopenia (0.06%), thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura
|Ticragelor
- Ticragelor Prevention of thrombotic events. 180mg bolus then 90mg twice daily ESC Guidelines (European Heart Journal
|Prevention of thrombotic events.
doi:10.1093/eurheartj/ehs104):
|180mg bolus then 90mg twice daily
Prevention in Symptomatic (NYHA class II-IV) HF and AF: Class IIA
|Prevention in Symptomatic (NYHA class II-IV) HF and AF: Class IIA <cite>Esc1</cite>


ESC Guidelines: (European Heart Journal
Acute phase of coronary artery syndrome: Class IB <cite>Esc3</cite>
doi:10.1093/eurheartj/ehs092):
|Dyspnoea (13.8%), haemorrhage, bruising; nausea (4.3%), vomiting, diarrhoea (3.7%), hypertension (3.8%), hypotension (3.2%), back pain (3.6%), abdominal pain, dyspepsia, gastritis, dizziness (4.5%), chest pain (3.7%), headache (6.5%), cough (4.9%), rash, pruritus, fatigue (3.2%),  constipation, arrhythmias including atrial fibrillation (4.2%), paraesthesia, confusion, hyperuricaemia, raised serum creatinine (7.4%), vertigo.
Acute phase of coronary artery syndrome: Class IB
|-
|colspan="6" bgcolor="#E6E6FA"|'''Vitamin K Antagonists'''
|-
|
|Warfarin
|Prevention of thrombotic/ embolic events (esp. after prosthetic valve insertion)
|5-10mg initially then tailored to individual (usually 3-9mg once daily at the same time)
|
|valign="top"|Haemorrhage, nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea, jaundice, hepatic dysfunction, pancreatitis, pyrexia, alopecia, purpura, rash, ‘purple toes’, skin necrosis (increased risk in patients with protein C or protein S deficiency)
|-
|
|Acenocoumarol
|Prevention of thrombotic/ embolic events (esp. after prosthetic valve insertion)
|4mg initially, followed by 1-8mg daily
|
|valign="top"|Haemorrhage, nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea, jaundice, hepatic dysfunction, pancreatitis, pyrexia, alopecia, purpura, rash, ‘purple toes’, skin necrosis (increased risk in patients with protein C or protein S deficiency)
|-
|colspan="6" bgcolor="#E6E6FA"|'''Lipid-Lowering Drugs'''
|-
|rowspan="3"|Statins
|rowspan="3"|Simvastatin, Atorvastatin
|Primary hyper-cholesterolaemia, combined hyperlipidaemia
|Simvastatin: 10-20mg once daily
|Dyslipidaemia: Class IA; Low HDL-C: Class IIbB; Elderly patients with CVD: IB; Elderly patients with no CVD but CV risk factors: IIbB; Type I diabetes: IC; Patients with CKD: IIaC; Transplant patients: Class IIaB; PAD: Class IA; HIV patients: IIaC <cite>Esc2</cite>


dyspnoea (13.8%), haemorrhage, bruising; nausea (4.3%), vomiting, diarrhoea (3.7%), hypertension (3.8%), hypotension (3.2%), back pain (3.6%), abdominal pain, dyspepsia, gastritis, dizziness (4.5%), chest pain (3.7%), headache (6.5%), cough (4.9%), rash, pruritus, fatigue (3.2%), constipation, arrhythmias including atrial fibrillation (4.2%), paraesthesia, confusion, hyperuricaemia, raised serum creatinine (7.4%), vertigo
Hypertension in diabetics: Class IA; ACS: Class IA <cite>Esc3</cite>
Vitamin K Antagonists - Warfarin Prevention of thrombotic/ embolic events (esp. after prosthetic valve insertion) 5-10mg initially then tailored to individual (usually 3-9mg once daily at the same time) haemorrhage, nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea, jaundice, hepatic dysfunction, pancreatitis, pyrexia, alopecia, purpura, rash, ‘purple toes’, skin necrosis (increased risk in patients with protein C or protein S deficiency)
|rowspan="3" valign="top"|Oedema (2.7%), abdominal pain (5.9%), nausea (5.4%), atrial fibrillation (5.7%), constipation (2.2%), gastritis (4.9%), diabetes mellitus (4.2%), myalgia (3.7%), headache (2.5%), insomnia (4.0%), vertigo (4.5%), bronchitis (6.6%), sinusitis (2.3%), eczema (4.5%), urinary tract infection (3.2%)
- Acenocoumarol Prevention of thrombotic/ embolic events (esp. after prosthetic valve insertion) 4mg initially, followed by 1-8mg daily haemorrhage, nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea, jaundice, hepatic dysfunction, pancreatitis, pyrexia, alopecia, purpura, rash, ‘purple toes’, skin necrosis (increased risk in patients with protein C or protein S deficiency)
|-
Lipid-Lowering Drugs Statins Simvastatin, Atorvastatin Primary hyper-cholesterolaemia, combined hyperlipidaemia Simvastatin: 10-20mg once daily ESC and EASD Guidelines (European Heart Journal doi: 10.1093/eurheart/ehl261)
|Familial hyper-cholesterolaemia
Dyslipidaemia: Class IA
|Simvastatin: 40mg once daily
Low HDL-C: Class IIbB
|HeFH: Class IC <cite>Esc2</cite>
Elderly patients with CVD: IB
|-
Elderly patients with no CVD but CV risk factors: IIbB
|Prevention of cardiovascular events
Type I diabetes: IC
|20-40mg once daily
Patients with CKD: IIaC
|Class IA <cite>Esc2</cite>
Transplant patients: Class IIaB
|-
PAD: Class IA
|rowspan="2"|Fibrates
HIV patients: IIaC
|Gemfibrozil
|Hyperlipidaemias of types IIa, IIb, III, IV and V
|Gemfibrozil: 0.9-1.2mg daily
|Low HDL-C: Class IIbB; Transplant patients (with HTG, low HDL-C): Class IIbC <cite>Esc6</cite>
|Gastro-intestinal disturbances including dyspepsia (19.6%), nausea (4%), abdominal pain (9.8%), diarrhoea (7.2%), vomiting (1.2%); headache (1.2%), fatigue (3.8%), vertigo (1.5%), eczema, rash (1.7%), atrial fibrillation (0.7%), pancreatitis, appendicitis, disturbances in liver function including hepatitis and cholestatic jaundice, dizziness, paraesthesia, sexual dysfunction, thrombocytopenia, anaemia, leucopenia, eosinophilia, bone-marrow suppression, myalgia, myopathy, myasthenia, myositis accompanied by increase in creatine kinase, blurred vision, exfoliative dermatitis, alopecia, and photosensitivity
|-
|Ezetimibe
|Primary and familial hyper-cholesterolaemia
|10mg once daily
|Transplant patients (with high LDL-C): Class IIbC <cite>Esc6</cite>
|Gastro-intestinal disturbance including diarrhoea (4.1%) and abdominal pain (3.0%); headache, fatigue (2.4%); myalgia, arthralgia (3.0%), sinusitis (3.6%), pharyngitis (2.3%), viral infection (2.2%), coughing (2.3%), hypersensitivity reactions including rash, angioedema, and anaphylaxis, hepatitis,pancreatitis, cholelithiasis, cholecystitis, thrombocytopenia, raised creatine kinase, myopathy, and rhabdomyolysis
|}


ESC Guidelines: (European Heart Journal
==References==
doi:10.1093/eurheartj/ehs092):
<biblio>
Hypertension in diabetics: Class IA
#Esc1 pmid=22611136
ACS: Class IA Oedema (2.7%), abdominal pain (5.9%), nausea (5.4%), atrial fibrillation (5.7%), constipation (2.2%), gastritis (4.9%), diabetes mellitus (4.2%), myalgia (3.7%), headache (2.5%), insomnia (4.0%), vertigo (4.5%), bronchitis (6.6%), sinusitis (2.3%), eczema (4.5%), urinary tract infection (3.2%)
#Esc2 pmid=17220161
Familial hyper-cholesterolaemia Simvastatin: 40mg once daily ESC and EASD Guidelines (European Heart Journal doi: 10.1093/eurheart/ehl261)
#Esc3 pmid=22555213
HeFH: Class IC
#Esc4 pmid=22922416
Prevention of cardiovascular events 20-40mg once daily ESC and EASD Guidelines (European Heart Journal doi: 10.1093/eurheart/ehl261):
#Acc5 pmid=14557344
Class IA
#Esc6 pmid=21712404
Fibrates Gemfibrozil Hyperlipidaemias of types IIa, IIb, III, IV and V Gemfibrozil: 0.9-1.2mg daily ESC and EAS Guidelines (European Heart Journal (2011) 32, 1769–1818
</biblio>
doi:10.1093/eurheartj/ehr158)
Low HDL-C: Class IIbB
Transplant patients (with HTG, low HDL-C): Class IIbC gastro-intestinal disturbances including dyspepsia (19.6%), nausea (4%), abdominal pain (9.8%), diarrhoea (7.2%), vomiting (1.2%); headache (1.2%), fatigue (3.8%), vertigo (1.5%), eczema, rash (1.7%), atrial fibrillation (0.7%), pancreatitis, appendicitis, disturbances in liver function including hepatitis and cholestatic jaundice, dizziness, paraesthesia, sexual dysfunction, thrombocytopenia, anaemia, leucopenia, eosinophilia, bone-marrow suppression, myalgia, myopathy, myasthenia, myositis accompanied by increase in creatine kinase, blurred vision, exfoliative dermatitis, alopecia, and photosensitivity
- Ezetimibe Primary and familial hyper-cholesterolaemia 10mg once daily ESC and EAS Guidelines (European Heart Journal (2011) 32, 1769–1818
doi:10.1093/eurheartj/ehr158)
Transplant patients (with high LDL-C): Class IIbC gastro-intestinal disturbance including diarrhoea (4.1%) and abdominal pain (3.0%); headache, fatigue (2.4%); myalgia, arthralgia (3.0%), sinusitis (3.6%), pharyngitis (2.3%), viral infection (2.2%), coughing (2.3%), hypersensitivity reactions including rash, angioedema, and anaphylaxis, hepatitis,pancreatitis, cholelithiasis, cholecystitis, thrombocytopenia, raised creatine kinase, myopathy, and rhabdomyolysis

Revision as of 08:41, 28 May 2015

Heather Melrose, Jonas de Jong

Cardiovascular disease including heart disease, arrhythmias and hypertension, is the leading cause of morbidity and mortality in the Western world. There are numerous devastating conditions affecting the heart and/or the vasculature, leading to high demand for cardiovascular drugs. This chapter focuses on some key therapeutic targets within the cardiovascular system and the drugs used to combat cardiovascular disease.

Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System

RAAS schematic

The renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) is an important hormone-based pathway within the body that regulates fluid balance and thus systemic blood pressure. The system is activated by decreases in blood volume or pressure detected in two ways: a drop in blood pressure detected by baroreceptors (pressure sensors) located in the carotid sinus or a drop in flow rate through the kidneys, detected by the juxtaglomerular apparatus. The body responds to these stimuli to effect a restoration in blood pressure via the actions of three hormones; renin, angiotensin and aldosterone. Following the detected drop in blood pressure, the enzyme renin is released from specialised cells within the kidney. The substrate of renin is the inactive precursor of angiotensin I, angiotensinogen. Angiotensin I is then enzymatically converted by angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) into angiotensin II, a hormone with various actions throughout the body that ultimately increase blood pressure, restoring fluid balance within the body.

Angiotensin II causes increases in blood pressure by actions at various sites:

  • Adrenal Glands: Angiotensin II augments release of the steroid hormone aldosterone, which acts locally to augment sodium retention and potassium secretion from the kidney. The net effect of this is water retention, thus restoring fluid balance.
  • Kidneys: Angiotensin II also increases sodium retention via direct actions on renal proximal tubules, as well as affecting glomerular filtration rate and renal blood flow.
  • Cardiovascular System: Angiotensin II is a potent endogenous vasoconstrictor, causing resistance arteries and veins to constrict, raising blood pressure. Furthermore in both the blood vessels and the heart, prolonged increases in Angiotensin II encourage cell growth and resultant hypertrophy.
  • Central Nervous System: In the brain, Angiotensin II acts on the posterior pituitary gland, stimulating release of antidiuretic hormone (ADH, also known as Arginine Vasopressin (AVP)). ADH increases water reabsorption in the renal collecting ducts. Angiotensin II also acts on the subfornical organ within the brain to cause increased thirst, encouraging water intake.

Chronic activation of the RAAS system can lead to deleterious remodelling and increased inflammation in the heart, vasculature and kidneys, as well as hypertension and chronic kidney disease.

Neural Control of the Cardiovascular System

Interaction between the sympathic and parasympathic nervous system and the heart

Sympathetic (Adrenergic) Nervous System

The adrenergic nervous system is a vital component of many processes throughout the body, including the cardiovascular system. Circulating catecholamines (e.g. adrenaline and noradrenaline) bind to and activate adrenergic receptors on cell membranes. Adrenergic receptors are a class of G-protein coupled receptors that elicit a variety of tissue-specific effects and exist in several subtypes.

Vasculature

The predominant receptor subtype present in blood vessels is the a1-adrenergic receptor, activation of which by catecholamine binding causes activation of the phospholipase-C (PLC), inositol triphosphate (IP3), diacylglycerol (DAG) intracellular signalling pathway. This ultimately results in myocyte contraction, vasoconstriction and consequent increases in systemic blood pressure.

Heart

Although the heart is myogenic, that is the impetus for contraction is self-initiated, the output of the heart is influenced by the central nervous system. The net effect of the sympathetic system on the heart is to increase cardiac output. The adrenergic receptors found in the heart belong to the ß-receptor subfamily and include ß1 and ß3 receptors. Catecholamine binding to ß1-receptors in the heart causes increases in cardiac output via a number of mechanisms: positive chronotropic effects, positive inotropic effects increased automaticity and conduction in both ventricular myocytes and the atrioventricular (AV) node. However ß3-receptor activation antagonises these actions, producing a negative inotropic effect and providing an inbuilt control system within the heart.

Prolonged increase catecholamine levels in the circulation (e.g. when secreted from adrenal tumours or times of stress) can lead to chronic cardiovascular problems such as hypertension and arrhythmias.

Parasympathetic Nervous System

The parasympathetic system relies on the binding of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine (Ach) to muscarinic receptors, and has various roles throughout the body.

Vasculature

Although blood vessels do express muscarinic receptors, they do not receive cholinergic innervation; however application of exogenous Ach results in a swift and profound vasodilation.

Heart

Activation of muscarinic receptors (M2-subtype) in the heart by Ach released from the vagus nerve causes a reduction in cardiac output via opposite effects to adrenergic stimulation: negative chronotropic effects and decreases in AV node conduction as well as decreasing the force of atrial contractions.

Platelet/Clotting System

Platelet activation and inhibition operates through surface receptors on platelets. Feedback loops enhance platelet activation (e.g. ADP released by platelets increases platelet activation, through the ADP receptor)

Platelets (also known as thrombocytes) are small cells lacking nuclei that are responsible for haemostasis, or blood clotting. Damage or injury leading to blood loss and exposure of extracellular collagen fibres is detected, activating platelets. Once activated, platelets become adhesive, sticking to both the damaged vessel wall and each other, forming a clump of cells, or ‘clot’, helping to dam the vessel leak. They then begin to secrete cytokines that encourage invasion of fibroblasts present in the surrounding tissue which form a more permanent patch, either by creating healthy tissue, or depositing extracellular matrix to form a scar.

There are several conditions in which abnormal clotting can be damaging to the body; excess clotting can lead to vascular blockage and ischaemia or stroke; less commonly, deficient clotting can lead to excess blood loss, for example in haemophilia. To combat these diseases, there are drugs that modulate the clotting process.

Anti-coagulants

Drugs that prevent clotting (anti-coagulants) are important in those with an increased risk of clotting-mediated damage such as a stroke or ischaemia.

As well being an analgesic and anti-pyretic, Aspirin is an anti-thrombotic agent given in low doses to those at risk of damage from clotting (e.g. following a heart attack). Aspirin’s anti-coagulant actions come from its suppression of key pro-clotting factors such as prostaglanding and thromboxanes via irreversible inactivation of the PTGS cyclooxygenase enzyme. This suppression of factors such as thromboxane A2 reduces platelet aggregation and thus prevents clot formation.

P2Y12 inhibitors such as clopidogrel exert their anti-coagulant effect via inhibition of the P2Y12 subtype of the platelet ADP receptor. By blocking P2Y12, these drugs prevent activation of platelets and the formation of the fibrin network needed for clotting.

Drugs such as abciximab and tirofiban prevent clotting via inhibition of the glycoprotein IIb/IIIa receptor preventing both platelet activation and aggregation.

Pharmacokinetics

When administering drugs to a patient, it is crucial to know several facts about the drug in order to maximise efficacy and minimise side-effects/toxicity. These include information about what dose is effective, how long the drug remains active in the body, how quickly it is broken down/removed from the body, and how easily the body can absorb/use that drug. The following table details these pharmacokinetic properties and how they are calculated:

Property Description Standard units (Abbreviation) Formula
Dose Amount of active drug given to patient mg (D) Drug Specific (From clinical studies)
Concentration Amount of drug in a given plasma volume µg/ml (C) = D / Vd
EC50 The concentration of drug needed to elicit a response halfway between zero and maximal responses. µg/ml (EC50) y = bottom + (Top-Bottom)/(1+ [x/EC50] Hill Coefficient)
Volume of Distribution The theoretical volume the drug would occupy if distributed uniformly throughout the tissues to elicit the current plasma concentration. L (Vd) D / C
Elimination Constant (Rate) The rate at which the drug is removed from the body. h-1 (Ke) ln(2) / t1/2 or CL / Vd
Bioavailability How much of the administered dose is available for actual use by the body. no units as expressing a fraction (f) 100 × (AUC (po)×D (iv))/(AUC (iv)×D (po))

AUC = Area under curve po = oral administration iv = intravenous administration

Cmax or Cmin The maximum (Cmax) / minimum (Cmin) plasma drug concentration reached following drug administration µg/ml (Cmax or Cmin) Identified via direct measurement of plasma C
tmax The time it takes for a drug to reach Cmax following administration h (tmax) Identified via direct measurement of plasma C over time
Half-life The time it takes for a drug to reach half its original concentration h (t1/2) ln(2) / Ke
Drug Clearance The volume of plasma cleared of the drug over a set time l/h (CL) Vd x Ke or D / Area under curve

Common Drug-Drug Interactions

It is important to be aware of the interactions that can occur between concomitantly administered drugs, as they may effect efficacy and/or toxicity, or produce adverse side effects. Such interactions could for example affect drug absorption, drug bioavailability or efficacy, or combine to produce unwanted metabolites, as well as possibly having effects on clinical analyses. If a combination of two drugs decreases the effect of one or both of them, the interaction is termed an antagonistic effect; however if, conversely, a combination of two drugs enhances the effect of one or both of them, the interaction is termed a synergistic effect. Drugs that act on the cardiovascular system are high in interactivity, which is an issue as cardiovascular patients normally receive more than one drug. Some common drug—drug interactions related to cardiovascular drugs are listed below:

Drug Drugs that drug action Drugs that drug action
Digoxin
  • Diuretics
  • Antiarrhythmics
  • Macrolide antibiotics
  • Cholestyramine
  • Neomycin
  • Keto- and intraconazole
  • Calcium antagonists
  • Cyclosporine, indomethacin
  • HMG CoA reductase inhibitors
  • Benzodiazepines
  • Amiodarone
  • Verapamil
  • Rifampicin
  • Antacids (liquid)
Warfarin
  • Furosemide
  • Amiodarone
  • Sulfa
  • Macrolide and quinolone antibiotics
  • NSAIDs
  • Azathioprine
  • Phenobarbitone
  • Carbamazepine
  • Dexamethasone
  • Prednisolone
  • Rifampicin
  • Vitamin K
  • Raloxifene
Clopidogrel
  • Rifampicin
  • Caffeine
  • Methylxanthines
  • Phosphodiesterase inhibitors
  • Statins
  • Calcium channel blockers
  • Warfarin
  • Proton pump inhibitors
Furosemide
  • NSAIDs
  • Phenytoin
  • Colesevelam
ACE Inhibitors
  • NSAIDs
  • Probenecid
  • Calcium channel blockers
  • Indomethacin
  • Antacids
ß-blockers
  • Amiodarone
  • Calcium channel blockers
  • Diltiazem
  • Phenoxybenzamine
  • Phenobarbital
  • Rifampicin
  • Cimetidine
  • Antacids (liquid)
  • NSAIDs
Statins
  • Amiodarone
  • Verapamil
  • Fibrates
  • Amprenavir
  • Diltiazem
  • Nevirapine
  • Rifampicin

There are several mechanisms by which drugs are broken down by the body, usually via degradation by enzymes. One common family of enzymes involved in drug metabolismis the cytochrome P450 (CYP) family; a large, diverse group of enzymes that encourage oxidation of a variety of substrates, both endogenous (e.g. steroid hormones) and exogenous (e.g. toxins and drugs). CYP enzymes account for up to 75% of drug metabolism, aiding some drugs to form their active compounds but mostly deactivating drugs into inactive metabolites to be excreted. CYP enzymes can influence drug actions in several ways; they can increase drug metabolism (either increasing action via formation of the active by-product or decreasing action by metabolism of the active drug) or their action can be inhibited by drugs that compete for access to the CYP enzymes active site, preventing the normal interaction between drug and enzyme. Many drugs exert their interactions with other drugs viainterference with the CYP system. For example, if Drug A is metabolised by CYP and Drug B inhibits CYP activity, co-administration will result in a decreased bioavailability of Drug A. In humans there are 18 families and 43 subfamilies of the CYP group of enzymes, which target different substrates. Some CYP enzymes important in cardiovascular medicine, their cardiovascular-drug substrates and some of their interactions are shown in the table below:

Enzyme Substrates (e.g.) Inhibitors (e.g.) Inducers (e.g.)
CYP2C19
  • Clopidogrel
  • Propranolol
  • Warfarin
  • Moclobemide
  • Chloramphenicol
  • Many anti-convulsants (Valproate)
  • Proton pump inhibitors (Omeprazole)
  • Rifampicin
  • Carbamazepine
  • Prednisone
CYP3A4
  • Donepezil
  • Statins (Atorvastatin)
  • Ca-channel blockers (Nifedipine)
  • Amiodarone
  • Dronedarone
  • Quinidine
  • PDE5 Inhibitors (Sildenafil)
  • Kinins
  • Caffeine
  • Eplerenone
  • Propranolol
  • Salmeterol
  • Warfarin
  • Clopidogrel
  • Protease inhibitors (Ritonavir)
  • Macrolides (Clarithromycin)
  • Chloramphenicol
  • Nefazodone
  • Some Ca-channel blockers (Verapamil)
  • Cimetidine
  • Some azole anti-fungals (Ketaconazole)
  • Grapefruit juice
  • Some anti-convulsants (Carbamazepine)
  • Baribiturates (Phenobarbital)
  • St. John’s Wort
  • Some reverse transcriptase inhibitors (Efavirenz)
  • Some Hypoglycaemics (Pioglitazone)
  • Glucocorticoids
  • Modafinil
CYP2C9
  • Fluvastatin
  • Angiotensin receptor II agonists (losartan)
  • Warfarin
  • Torasemide
  • Some azole anti-fungals (Fluconazole)
  • Amiodarone
  • Antihistamines (Cyclizine)
  • Chloramphenicol
  • Fluvastatin
  • Fluvoxamine
  • Probenecid
  • Sertraline
  • Rifampicin
  • Secobarbital
CYP2D6
  • ß-blockers (Propranolol)
  • Class I anti-arrythmics (Flecainide)
  • Donepezil
  • SSRIs (Fluoxetine)
  • Quinidine
  • Sertraline
  • Terbinafine
  • Amiodarone
  • Cinacalcet
  • Ritonavir
  • Antipsychotics (Haloperidol)
  • Antihistamines (Promethazine)
  • Metoclopramide
  • Ranitidine
  • Mibefradil
  • Rifampicin
  • Dexamethasone
  • Glutethimide

In addition to drug-drug interactions, the actions of many drugs are also affected by food or drink. For example, care should be taken with alcohol consumption with many kinds of drugs, as it can put stress on the liver which is already working hard to metabolise drugs in the body. Grapefruit juice too can cause issues, as it is known to inhibit CYP3a. For more information of interactions between drugs and food/drinks see this guide: General Use of Medicine

Cardiovascular Drugs
Drug Type Examples (generic name) Indications Typical Dosage Guidelines / Class of Indication Side Effects (Prevalence %)
:Anti-hypertensives
Diuretics Furosemide Oedema Furosemide: 20-40mg once daily Mild gastro-intestinal disturbances, pancreatitis, hepatic encephalopathy, postural hypotension, temporary increase in serum-cholesterol and triglyceride concentration, hyperglycaemia, acute urinary retention, electrolyte disturbances, metabolic alkalosis, blood disorders, hyperuricaemia, visual disturbances, tinnitus and deafness, and hypersensitivity reactions (including rash, photosensitivity, and pruritus).
Resistant Hypertension Furosemide: 40-80mg once daily Hypertension in symptomatic (NYHA class II-IV) HF and LVD: Class IC [1]
ACE Inhibitors Captopril, Monopril Hypertension Captopril: 12.5mg twice daily Hypertension: Class IA [2]

Hypertension in symptomatic (NYHA class II-IV) HF and LVD: Class IA [1]

Hypertension in diabetics: Class IA [3]

Hypotension (2.4%), renal impairment, persistent dry cough, angioedema, rash pancreatitis, upper respiratory-tract symptoms (2-10%), gastro-intestinal symptoms (1-2%), altered liver function tests, cholestatic jaundice, hepatitis, fulminant hepatic necrosis and failure, hyperkalaemia (2%), hypoglycaemia, blood disorders including thrombocytopenia, leucopenia, neutropenia, headache (3%), dizziness (2-12%), fatigue, malaise, taste disturbance, paraesthesia, bronchospasm, fever, serositis, vasculitis, myalgia (3%), arthralgia, positive antinuclear antibody, raised erythrocyte sedimentation rate, eosinophilia, leucocytosis, and photosensitivity.
Heart Failure Captopril: 12.5mg 3 times daily Post STEMI: Class IA [4]

Diabetic patients: Class IC [2]

Symptomatic (NYHA class II-IV) HF: Class IA; Acute heart failure with ACS: Class IA [1]

Prophylaxis Following MI Captopril: 6.25mg once daily
Diabetic nephropathy Captopril: 75-100mg once daily
Angiotensin Receptor Blockers Losartan, Candesartan Hypertension Losartan: 50mg once daily Hypertension: Class IA [2]

Hypertension in diabetics: Class IA [3]

Gastro-intestinal disturbances (<3%), dizziness (14%), angina, palpitation, oedema, dyspnoea, headache (14%), malaise, urticaria, pruritus, rash;
Left ventricular hypertrophy Losartan: 12.5-150mg daily LVH: Class IB [4]
Diabetic nephropathy Losartan: 50mg daily
Alpha Blockers Prazosin, Doxazosin Hypertension Prazosin: 1-10mg 2-3 times daily Drowsiness, hypotension (notably postural hypotension) (10-70% initially), syncope (1%), asthenia, dizziness, depression, headache (8-18%), dry mouth, gastro-intestinal disturbances, oedema, blurred vision (<5%), intra-operative floppy iris syndrome, rhinitis (<4%), erectile disorders (including priapism), tachycardia and palpitations (7-14%), gastrointestinal side-symptoms (4-5%), hypersensitivity reactions including rash, pruritus and angioedema.
Congestive Heart Failure Prazosin: 4-20mg daily
Raynaud’s Syndrome Prazosin: 1-2mg daily
Beta Blockers Atenolol, Propranolol Hypertension Atenolol: 25-50mg daily Gastro-intestinal disturbances (2-4%); bradycardia, heart failure, hypotension, conduction disorders, peripheral vasoconstriction, bronchospasm, dyspnoea; headache, fatigue, sleep disturbances (2-5%), paraesthesia, dizziness (2-5%), vertigo, psychoses; sexual dysfunction; purpura, thrombocytopenia; visual disturbances; exacerbation of psoriasis, alopecia; rarely rashes and dry eyes.
Angina Atenolol: 100mg once/twice daily ACS: Class IIaB [2]

Angina in symptomatic (NYHA class II-IV) HF and LVD: Class IA [1]

Arrhythmias Atenolol: 50-100mg daily Atrial fibrillation: Class IA; Polymorphic VT: Class IB [4]

Symptomatic (NYHA class II-IV) HF, LVD and AF: Class IA; Management of VA in HF: Class IA [1]

SVT: Class IIbC; Wide QRS-complex tachycardia of unknown origin: Class IIIC; Sinus tachycardia: Class IC; Poorly tolerated AVNRT with haemodynamic intolerance: Class IIaC; Recurrent symptomatic AVNRT: Class IC; Documented PSVT with only dual AV-nodal pathways or single echo beats demonstrated during electrophysiological study and no other identified cause of arrhythmia: Class IC; Infrequent, well tolerated AVNRT: Class IB; Focal junction tachycardia: Class IIaC; Nonparoxysmal junctional tachycardia: Class IIaC; WPW Syndrome: Class IIaC; AVRT, poorly tolerated: Class IIbC; Since or infrequent AVRT episode(s): Class IIaB; Acute treatment of Focal Atrial Tachycardia: Class IIaC; Prophylactic therapy for AT: Class IC; AF (Poorly tolerated): Class IIaC; AF (Stable flutter): Class IC; Prophylaxis of SVT during pregnancy: Class IIaB [5]

Migraine Atenolol: 50-200mg daily
Calcium Channel Blockers Nifedipine, Verapamil, Diltiazem Hypertension Nifedipine: 20-30mg once daily Hypertension in symptomatic (NYHA class II-IV) HF and LVD: Class IA [1] Gastro-intestinal disturbance (2-11%); hypotension (1-5%), oedema (7-29%), vasodilatation, palpitation; headache (7-35%), dizziness (3-27%), lethargy (4-6%), asthenia (10-12%); less commonly tachycardia (<1-7%), syncope (<1%), chills, nasal congestion, dyspnoea (<3%), anxiety, sleep disturbance (<2%), vertigo (<3%), migraine, paraesthesia, tremor (1-8%), polyuria, dysuria, nocturia, erectile dysfunction (<2%), epistaxis, myalgia, joint swelling, visual disturbance (<2%), sweating (<2%), hypersensitivity reactions (<1%); rarely anorexia, gum hyperplasia, mood disturbances, hyperglycaemia, male infertility, purpura (<1%), and photosensitivity reactions (<1%); also reported dysphagia, intestinal obstruction, intestinal ulcer, bezoar formation, gynaecomastia, agranulocytosis, and anaphylaxis;
Raynaud’s Syndrome Nifedipine: 5-20mg 3 times daily
Angina (prophylaxis) Nifedipine: 5-20mg 3 times daily Angina in symptomatic (NYHA class II-IV) HF and LVD: Class IIaA [1]
Anti-Arrhythmics
Class I (sodium channel blockers) Flecainide, Lidocaine, Procainamide Ventricular Arrhythmias Flecainide: 50-100mg twice daily Sustained VT and VF: Class IIbC [4]

Pre-excited SVT/AF: Class IB; Wide QRS-complex tachycardia of unknown origin: Lidocaine (Class IIbB) / Procainamide (Class IB); Wide QRS-complex tachycardia of unknown origin with LVD: Class IB; Focal junction tachycardia: Class IIaC; WPW Syndrome: IIaC; AVRT, poorly tolerated: IIaC; Single or infrequent AVRT episode(s): Class IIbC; Acute treatment of Focal Atrial Tachycardia: Class IIaC; Prophylactic therapy for AT: Class IIaC; AF (Stable flutter): Class IIbA; Prophylaxis of SVT during pregnancy: Class IIbB [5]

Oedema, pro-arrhythmic effects (1-13%); dyspnoea; nervous-system side-effects including dizziness, asthenia, fatigue, fever; visual disturbances (13-28%); rarely pneumonitis, hallucinations, depression, confusion, amnesia, dyskinesia, convulsions, peripheral neuropathy; also reported gastro-intestinal disturbances (1-4%), anorexia, hepatic dysfunction, flushing, syncope, drowsiness, tremor, vertigo, headache, anxiety, insomnia, ataxia, paraesthesia, anaemia, leucopenia, thrombocytopenia, corneal deposits, tinnitus, increased antinuclear antibodies, hypersensitivity reactions (including rash, urticaria, and photosensitivity), increased sweating.
Class II (Beta blockers) (See above) (See above) (See above) (See above)
Class III (Potassium channel blockers) Amiodarone, Sotalol Ventricular, Arrhythmias Amiodarone: 200mg 2-3 times daily Sustained VT and VF: Class IIaC; Polymorphic VT: Class IC [4]

Management of VA in HF: Class IA; Prevention of VA in HF: Class IIbB [1]

SVT: Class IIBC; Wide QRS-complex tachycardia of unknown origin: Class IB; Wide QRS-complex tachycardia of unknown origin with LVD: Class IB; Recurrent AVNRT unresponsive to beta blocker or calcium-channel blocker and patient not desiring RF ablation: Class IIbC; Focal junction tachycardia: Class IIaC; WPW Syndrome: IIaC; AVRT, poorly tolerated: Class IIaC; Since or infrequent AVRT episode(s): Class IIbB; Acute treatment of Focal Atrial Tachycardia: Class IIaC; Prophylactic therapy for AT: Class IIaC; AF (Poorly tolerated): Class IIbC; AF (Stable flutter): Class IIbC; Prophylaxis of SVT during pregnancy: Class IIIC [5]

Gastro-intestinal disturbances (2-20%)), taste disturbances, hepatic disturbances (up to 50%); bradycardia; pulmonary toxicity (1-17%); tremor (9-59%), sleep disorders; hypothyroidism (5-10%), hyperthyroidism (5-10%); reversible corneal microdeposits (up to 98%); phototoxicity, persistent slate-grey skin discoloration (1-7%), injection-site reactions; less commonly onset or worsening of arrhythmia, conduction disturbances, peripheral neuropathy (1-105) and myopathy; very rarely sinus arrest, bronchospasm, ataxia (2-37%), benign intracranial hypertension, headache, vertigo, epididymo-orchitis, impotence, haemolytic or aplastic anaemia, thrombocytopenia, rash, hypersensitivity including photosensitivity (2-20%), anaphylaxis on rapid injection, hypotension (10-30%), respiratory distress syndrome, sweating, and hot flushes
Class IV (Calcium channel blockers) (See above) (See above) (See above) (See above)
Digoxin Supra-ventricular Arrhythmias Acute: 0.75-1.5mg over 24 hours; Maintenance: 125-150µg daily SVT: Class IIbC; WPW Syndrome: Class IIIC; AVRT, poorly tolerated: Class IIIC; Since or infrequent AVRT episode(s): Class IIIC; Prophylaxis of SVT during pregnancy: Class IC [5] Gastro-intestinal disturbances (vomiting, diarrhoea, anorexia, abdominal pain) (25%); arrhythmias (up to 50%), AV conduction disturbances (50%); nervous system disturbances (dizziness, apathy, confusion, headache, fatigue, weakness) (25%); blurred or yellow vision; rash, eosinophilia, depression, anorexia, intestinal ischaemia and necrosis, psychosis, gynaecomastia on long-term use, and thrombocytopenia.
Heart Failure 62.5-125 µg daily Symptomatic (NYHA class II-IV) HF: Class IIbB

Symptomatic (NYHA class II-IV) HF, LVD and AF: Class IB; Acute HF with AF and VT: Class IC [1]

Anti-platelet Drugs
Aspirin Prevention of thrombotic cerebro- or cardio-vascular disease 75mg once/day Prevention in AF: Class IC; Prevention in diabetic patients: IIaB [2]

Prevention in Symptomatic (NYHA class II-IV) HF and AF: Class IIA [1]

Prevention in hypertensive patients with CV events: Class IA; Prevention in hypertensive patients without CV history but with reduced renal function/high risk: Class IIbA [3]

Post-MI: Class Ia [3]

Bronchospasm (10-30% in asthmatics); gastro-intestinal irritation (up to 83%), gastro-intestinal haemorrhage (occasionally major), also other haemorrhage (e.g. intracranial (0.5%), subconjunctival), chest pain (8.3%), oedema (4.5%), hypertension (4.3%).
Pain / pyrexia 300-600mg every 4-6 hours as necessary
Clopidogrel Prevention of thrombotic events (esp. when warfarin not tolerated) 75mg once/day Prevention in diabetic patients: IIaB; Primary and secondary prevention of stroke: Class IB [2]

Prevention in Symptomatic (NYHA class II-IV) HF and AF: Class IIA [1]

Acute phase of coronary artery syndrome: Class IB; Non-cardioembolic cerebral ischaemic events: Class IA [3]

Dyspepsia (5.2%), abdominal pain (5.6%), diarrhoea (4.5%); bleeding disorders including gastro-intestinal (2.0%) and intracranial (0.4%), nausea (3.4%), vomiting, gastritis, flatulence, constipation, gastric and duodenal ulcers, headache (7.6%), epistaxis (2.9%), dizziness (6.2%), paraesthesia, leucopenia, decreased platelets (very rarely severe thrombocytopenia), eosinophilia, rash (4.2%), pruritus (3.3%), vertigo, colitis, pancreatitis, hepatitis (<1%), acute liver failure, hypertension (4.3%), chest pain (8.3%), oedema (4.1%), vasculitis, confusion, hallucinations, taste disturbance, cough (3.9%), fatigue (4.8%) stomatitis, bronchospasm, interstitial pneumonitis, pyrexia (2.2%), blood disorders including thrombocytopenic purpura (5.3%), agranulocytosis, neutropenia (0.04%) and pancytopenia and hypersensitivity-like reactions (<0.1%)including fever, glomerulonephritis, arthralgia, Stevens-Johnson syndrome, toxic epidermal necrolysis, lichen planus.
Acute myocardial infarction 300mg daily initially then 75mg once/day Post STEMI: Class IA [4]
Acute coronary syndrome 300mg daily initially then 75mg once/day ACS: Class IIaC [2]
Prasugrel Prevention of thrombotic events. 60mg bolus then 5-10mg once daily Prevention in Symptomatic (NYHA class II-IV) HF and AF: Class IIA [1]

Acute phase of coronary artery syndrome: Class IB [3]

Haemorrhage (11.3%) (including gastro-intestinal (1.5%) and intracranial), haematoma, haematuria, hypertension (7.5%), hypotension (3.9%), headache (5.5%), back pain (5.0%), dyspnoea (4.9%), nausea (4.6%), dizziness (4.1%), cough (3.9%), fatigue (3.7%), chest pain (3.1%), arrhythmias including atrial fibrillation (2.9%) and bradycardia (2.9%), rash (2.8%), pyrexia (2.7%), oedema (2.7%), diarrhoea (2.3%), hypercholesterolaemia/hyperlipidaemia (7.5%), anaemia, rash,hypersensitivity reactions including angioedema (0.06%), thrombocytopenia (0.06%), thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura.
Ticragelor Prevention of thrombotic events. 180mg bolus then 90mg twice daily Prevention in Symptomatic (NYHA class II-IV) HF and AF: Class IIA [1]

Acute phase of coronary artery syndrome: Class IB [3]

Dyspnoea (13.8%), haemorrhage, bruising; nausea (4.3%), vomiting, diarrhoea (3.7%), hypertension (3.8%), hypotension (3.2%), back pain (3.6%), abdominal pain, dyspepsia, gastritis, dizziness (4.5%), chest pain (3.7%), headache (6.5%), cough (4.9%), rash, pruritus, fatigue (3.2%), constipation, arrhythmias including atrial fibrillation (4.2%), paraesthesia, confusion, hyperuricaemia, raised serum creatinine (7.4%), vertigo.
Vitamin K Antagonists
Warfarin Prevention of thrombotic/ embolic events (esp. after prosthetic valve insertion) 5-10mg initially then tailored to individual (usually 3-9mg once daily at the same time) Haemorrhage, nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea, jaundice, hepatic dysfunction, pancreatitis, pyrexia, alopecia, purpura, rash, ‘purple toes’, skin necrosis (increased risk in patients with protein C or protein S deficiency)
Acenocoumarol Prevention of thrombotic/ embolic events (esp. after prosthetic valve insertion) 4mg initially, followed by 1-8mg daily Haemorrhage, nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea, jaundice, hepatic dysfunction, pancreatitis, pyrexia, alopecia, purpura, rash, ‘purple toes’, skin necrosis (increased risk in patients with protein C or protein S deficiency)
Lipid-Lowering Drugs
Statins Simvastatin, Atorvastatin Primary hyper-cholesterolaemia, combined hyperlipidaemia Simvastatin: 10-20mg once daily Dyslipidaemia: Class IA; Low HDL-C: Class IIbB; Elderly patients with CVD: IB; Elderly patients with no CVD but CV risk factors: IIbB; Type I diabetes: IC; Patients with CKD: IIaC; Transplant patients: Class IIaB; PAD: Class IA; HIV patients: IIaC [2]

Hypertension in diabetics: Class IA; ACS: Class IA [3]

Oedema (2.7%), abdominal pain (5.9%), nausea (5.4%), atrial fibrillation (5.7%), constipation (2.2%), gastritis (4.9%), diabetes mellitus (4.2%), myalgia (3.7%), headache (2.5%), insomnia (4.0%), vertigo (4.5%), bronchitis (6.6%), sinusitis (2.3%), eczema (4.5%), urinary tract infection (3.2%)
Familial hyper-cholesterolaemia Simvastatin: 40mg once daily HeFH: Class IC [2]
Prevention of cardiovascular events 20-40mg once daily Class IA [2]
Fibrates Gemfibrozil Hyperlipidaemias of types IIa, IIb, III, IV and V Gemfibrozil: 0.9-1.2mg daily Low HDL-C: Class IIbB; Transplant patients (with HTG, low HDL-C): Class IIbC [6] Gastro-intestinal disturbances including dyspepsia (19.6%), nausea (4%), abdominal pain (9.8%), diarrhoea (7.2%), vomiting (1.2%); headache (1.2%), fatigue (3.8%), vertigo (1.5%), eczema, rash (1.7%), atrial fibrillation (0.7%), pancreatitis, appendicitis, disturbances in liver function including hepatitis and cholestatic jaundice, dizziness, paraesthesia, sexual dysfunction, thrombocytopenia, anaemia, leucopenia, eosinophilia, bone-marrow suppression, myalgia, myopathy, myasthenia, myositis accompanied by increase in creatine kinase, blurred vision, exfoliative dermatitis, alopecia, and photosensitivity
Ezetimibe Primary and familial hyper-cholesterolaemia 10mg once daily Transplant patients (with high LDL-C): Class IIbC [6] Gastro-intestinal disturbance including diarrhoea (4.1%) and abdominal pain (3.0%); headache, fatigue (2.4%); myalgia, arthralgia (3.0%), sinusitis (3.6%), pharyngitis (2.3%), viral infection (2.2%), coughing (2.3%), hypersensitivity reactions including rash, angioedema, and anaphylaxis, hepatitis,pancreatitis, cholelithiasis, cholecystitis, thrombocytopenia, raised creatine kinase, myopathy, and rhabdomyolysis

References

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